MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E Note the following details of the code protection feature on Microchip devices: * Microchip products meet the specification contained in their particular Microchip Data Sheet. * Microchip believes that its family of products is one of the most secure families of its kind on the market today, when used in the intended manner and under normal conditions. * There are dishonest and possibly illegal methods used to breach the code protection feature. All of these methods, to our knowledge, require using the Microchip products in a manner outside the operating specifications contained in Microchip's Data Sheets. Most likely, the person doing so is engaged in theft of intellectual property. * Microchip is willing to work with the customer who is concerned about the integrity of their code. * Neither Microchip nor any other semiconductor manufacturer can guarantee the security of their code. Code protection does not mean that we are guaranteeing the product as "unbreakable." Code protection is constantly evolving. We at Microchip are committed to continuously improving the code protection features of our products. Attempts to break Microchip's code protection feature may be a violation of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act. If such acts allow unauthorized access to your software or other copyrighted work, you may have a right to sue for relief under that Act. Information contained in this publication regarding device applications and the like is provided only for your convenience and may be superseded by updates. It is your responsibility to ensure that your application meets with your specifications. MICROCHIP MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND WHETHER EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, WRITTEN OR ORAL, STATUTORY OR OTHERWISE, RELATED TO THE INFORMATION, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO ITS CONDITION, QUALITY, PERFORMANCE, MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR PURPOSE. Microchip disclaims all liability arising from this information and its use. Use of Microchip devices in life support and/or safety applications is entirely at the buyer's risk, and the buyer agrees to defend, indemnify and hold harmless Microchip from any and all damages, claims, suits, or expenses resulting from such use. No licenses are conveyed, implicitly or otherwise, under any Microchip intellectual property rights. Trademarks The Microchip name and logo, the Microchip logo, dsPIC, KEELOQ, KEELOQ logo, MPLAB, PIC, PICmicro, PICSTART, PIC32 logo, rfPIC and UNI/O are registered trademarks of Microchip Technology Incorporated in the U.S.A. and other countries. FilterLab, Hampshire, HI-TECH C, Linear Active Thermistor, MXDEV, MXLAB, SEEVAL and The Embedded Control Solutions Company are registered trademarks of Microchip Technology Incorporated in the U.S.A. Analog-for-the-Digital Age, Application Maestro, chipKIT, chipKIT logo, CodeGuard, dsPICDEM, dsPICDEM.net, dsPICworks, dsSPEAK, ECAN, ECONOMONITOR, FanSense, HI-TIDE, In-Circuit Serial Programming, ICSP, Mindi, MiWi, MPASM, MPLAB Certified logo, MPLIB, MPLINK, mTouch, Omniscient Code Generation, PICC, PICC-18, PICDEM, PICDEM.net, PICkit, PICtail, REAL ICE, rfLAB, Select Mode, Total Endurance, TSHARC, UniWinDriver, WiperLock and ZENA are trademarks of Microchip Technology Incorporated in the U.S.A. and other countries. SQTP is a service mark of Microchip Technology Incorporated in the U.S.A. All other trademarks mentioned herein are property of their respective companies. (c) 2012, Microchip Technology Incorporated, Printed in the U.S.A., All Rights Reserved. Printed on recycled paper. ISBN: 978-1-62076-455-8 Microchip received ISO/TS-16949:2009 certification for its worldwide headquarters, design and wafer fabrication facilities in Chandler and Tempe, Arizona; Gresham, Oregon and design centers in California and India. The Company's quality system processes and procedures are for its PIC(R) MCUs and dsPIC(R) DSCs, KEELOQ(R) code hopping devices, Serial EEPROMs, microperipherals, nonvolatile memory and analog products. In addition, Microchip's quality system for the design and manufacture of development systems is ISO 9001:2000 certified. DS51686E-page 2 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Table of Contents Preface ........................................................................................................................... 7 Chapter 1. Compiler Overview 1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 13 1.2 Device Description ....................................................................................... 13 1.3 Compiler Description and Documentation .................................................... 13 1.4 Compiler and Other Development Tools ...................................................... 15 Chapter 2. Common C Interface 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 17 2.2 Background - The Desire for Portable Code ............................................... 17 2.3 Using the CCI ............................................................................................... 20 2.4 ANSI Standard Refinement .......................................................................... 21 2.5 ANSI Standard Extensions ........................................................................... 29 2.6 Compiler Features ........................................................................................ 43 Chapter 3. Compiler Command Line Driver 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 45 3.2 Invoking the Compiler ................................................................................... 45 3.3 The C Compilation Sequence ...................................................................... 49 3.4 The C++ Compilation Sequence .................................................................. 51 3.5 Runtime Files ............................................................................................... 55 3.6 Start-up and Initialization .............................................................................. 58 3.7 Compiler Output ........................................................................................... 58 3.8 Compiler Messages ...................................................................................... 60 3.9 Driver Option Descriptions ........................................................................... 60 Chapter 4. Device-Related Features 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 85 4.2 Device Support ............................................................................................. 85 4.3 Device Header Files ..................................................................................... 85 4.4 Stack ............................................................................................................ 86 4.5 Using SFRs From C Code ............................................................................ 88 Chapter 5. ANSI C Standard Issues 5.1 Divergence from the ANSI C Standard ........................................................ 91 5.2 Extensions to the ANSI C Standard ............................................................. 91 5.3 Implementation-defined behavior ................................................................. 92 Chapter 6. Supported Data Types and Variables 6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 93 6.2 Identifiers ...................................................................................................... 93 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 3 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 6.3 Data Representation .................................................................................... 93 6.4 Integer Data Types ....................................................................................... 94 6.5 Floating-Point Data Types ............................................................................ 96 6.6 Structures and Unions .................................................................................. 98 6.7 Pointer Types ............................................................................................. 100 6.8 Complex Data Types .................................................................................. 102 6.9 Constant Types and Formats ..................................................................... 102 6.10 Standard Type Qualifiers .......................................................................... 104 6.11 Compiler-Specific Qualifiers ..................................................................... 105 6.12 Variable Attributes .................................................................................... 105 Chapter 7. Memory Allocation and Access 7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 109 7.2 Address Spaces ......................................................................................... 109 7.3 Variables in Data Memory .......................................................................... 110 7.4 Auto Variable Allocation and Access .......................................................... 112 7.5 Variables in Program Memory .................................................................... 113 7.6 Variables in Registers ................................................................................ 114 7.7 Dynamic Memory Allocation ....................................................................... 114 7.8 Memory Models .......................................................................................... 114 Chapter 8. Operators and Statements 8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 117 8.2 Integral Promotion ...................................................................................... 117 8.3 Type References ........................................................................................ 118 8.4 Labels as Values ........................................................................................ 119 8.5 Conditional Operator Operands ................................................................. 120 8.6 Case Ranges .............................................................................................. 120 Chapter 9. Register Usage 9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 121 9.2 Register Usage ........................................................................................... 121 9.3 Register Conventions ................................................................................. 121 Chapter 10. Functions 10.1 Writing Functions ...................................................................................... 123 10.2 Function Attributes and Specifiers ............................................................ 123 10.3 Allocation of Function Code ..................................................................... 127 10.4 Changing the Default Function Allocation ................................................ 127 10.5 Function Size Limits ................................................................................. 128 10.6 Function Parameters ................................................................................ 128 10.7 Function Return Values ............................................................................ 130 10.8 Calling Functions ...................................................................................... 130 10.9 Inline Functions ........................................................................................ 130 Chapter 11. Interrupts 11.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 133 11.2 Interrupt Operation ................................................................................... 133 DS51686E-page 4 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. 11.3 Writing an Interrupt Service Routine ........................................................ 134 11.4 Associating a Handler Function with an Exception Vector ....................... 139 11.5 Exception Handlers .................................................................................. 141 11.6 Interrupt Service Routine Context Switching ............................................ 141 11.7 Latency ..................................................................................................... 142 11.8 Nesting Interrupts ..................................................................................... 142 11.9 Enabling/Disabling Interrupts ................................................................... 142 11.10 ISR Considerations ................................................................................ 142 Chapter 12. Main, Runtime Start-up and Reset 12.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 143 12.2 The Main Function .................................................................................... 143 12.3 Runtime Start-up Code ............................................................................. 143 12.4 The On Reset Routine .............................................................................. 157 Chapter 13. Library Routines 13.1 Using Library Routines ............................................................................. 159 Chapter 14. Mixing C/C++ and Assembly Language 14.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 161 14.2 Using Inline Assembly Language ............................................................. 161 14.3 Predefined Assembly Macros ................................................................... 164 Chapter 15. Optimizations 15.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 167 Chapter 16. Preprocessing 16.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 169 16.2 C/C++ Language Comments .................................................................... 169 16.3 Preprocessor Directives ........................................................................... 169 16.4 Pragma Directives .................................................................................... 171 16.5 Predefined Macros ................................................................................... 172 Chapter 17. Linking Programs 17.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 175 17.2 Replacing Library Symbols ....................................................................... 175 17.3 Linker-Defined Symbols ........................................................................... 175 17.4 Default Linker Script ................................................................................. 176 Appendix 18. Implementation-Defined Behavior 18.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 191 18.2 Highlights .................................................................................................. 191 18.3 Overview .................................................................................................. 191 18.4 Translation ................................................................................................ 192 18.5 Environment ............................................................................................. 192 18.6 Identifiers .................................................................................................. 193 18.7 Characters ................................................................................................ 193 18.8 Integers .................................................................................................... 194 18.9 Floating-Point ........................................................................................... 194 18.10 Arrays and Pointers ................................................................................ 196 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 5 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 18.11 Hints ....................................................................................................... 196 18.12 Structures, Unions, Enumerations, and Bit fields ................................... 197 18.13 Qualifiers ................................................................................................ 197 18.14 Declarators ............................................................................................. 198 18.15 Statements ............................................................................................. 198 18.16 Pre-Processing Directives ...................................................................... 198 18.17 Library Functions .................................................................................... 199 18.18 Architecture ............................................................................................ 202 Appendix 19. ASCII Character Set Appendix 20. Deprecated Features 20.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 205 20.2 Variables in Specified Registers ............................................................... 205 Glossary .....................................................................................................................207 Index ...........................................................................................................................225 Worldwide Sales and Service ...................................................................................238 DS51686E-page 6 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Preface NOTICE TO CUSTOMERS All documentation becomes dated, and this manual is no exception. Microchip tools and documentation are constantly evolving to meet customer needs, so some actual dialogs and/or tool descriptions may differ from those in this document. For the most up-to-date information on development tools, see the MPLAB(R) IDE or MPLAB X IDE Help. Select the Help menu and then "Topics" or "Help Contents" to open a list of available Help files. For the most current PDFs, please refer to our web site (http://www.microchip.com). Documents are identified by "DSXXXXXA", where "XXXXX" is the document number and "A" is the revision level of the document. This number is located on the bottom of each page, in front of the page number. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler documentation and support information is discussed in the sections below: * * * * * * * Document Layout Conventions Used Recommended Reading myMicrochip Personalized Notification Service The Microchip Web Site Microchip Forums Customer Support 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 7 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide DOCUMENT LAYOUT This document describes how to use GNU language tools to write code for 32-bit applications. The document layout is as follows: * Chapter 1. Compiler Overview - describes the compiler, development tools and feature set. * Chapter 2. Common C Interface - explains what you need to know about making code portable. * Chapter 3. Compiler Command Line Driver - describes how to use the compiler from the command line. * Chapter 4. Device-Related Features - describes the compiler header and register definition files, as well as how to use with the SFRs. * Chapter 5. ANSI C Standard Issues - describes the differences between the C/C++ language supported by the compiler syntax and the standard ANSI-89 C. * Chapter 6. Supported Data Types and Variables - describes the compiler integer and pointer data types. * Chapter 7. Memory Allocation and Access - describes the compiler run-time model, including information on sections, initialization, memory models, the software stack and much more. * Chapter 8. Operators and Statements - discusses operators and statements. * Chapter 9. Register Usage - explains how to access and use SFRs. * Chapter 10. Functions - details available functions. * Chapter 11. Interrupts - describes how to use interrupts. * Chapter 12. Main, Runtime Start-up and Reset - describes important elements of C/C++ code. * Chapter 13. Library Routines - explains how to use libraries. * Chapter 14. Mixing C/C++ and Assembly Language - provides guidelines for using the compiler with 32-bit assembly language modules. * Chapter 15. Optimizations - describes optimization options. * Chapter 16. Preprocessing - details the preprocessing operation. * Chapter 17. Linking Programs - explains how linking works. * Appendix 18. Implementation-Defined Behavior - details compiler-specific parameters described as implementation-defined in the ANSI standard. * Appendix 19. ASCII Character Set" - contains the ASCII character set. * Appendix 20. Deprecated Features - details features that are considered obsolete. DS51686E-page 8 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Preface CONVENTIONS USED The following conventions may appear in this documentation: DOCUMENTATION CONVENTIONS Description Represents Examples Arial font: Italic characters Initial caps Referenced books MPLAB(R) IDE User's Guide Emphasized text ...is the only compiler... A window the Output window A dialog the Settings dialog A menu selection select Enable Programmer Quotes A field name in a window or dia- "Save project before build" log Underlined, italic text with right angle bracket A menu path File>Save Bold characters A dialog button Click OK A tab Click the Power tab A key on the keyboard Press <Enter>, <F1> Sample source code #define START Filenames autoexec.bat File paths c:\mcc18\h Keywords _asm, _endasm, static Command-line options -Opa+, -Opa- Bit values 0, 1 Constants 0xFF, 'A' A variable argument file.o, where file can be Text in angle brackets < > Courier font: Plain Courier Italic Courier any valid filename Square brackets [ ] Optional arguments mpasmwin [options] file [options] Curly brackets and pipe character: { | } Choice of mutually exclusive arguments; an OR selection errorlevel {0|1} Ellipses... Replaces repeated text var_name [, var_name...] Represents code supplied by user void main (void) { ... } Sidebar Text DD 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. xmemory attribute Device Dependent. This feature is not supported on all devices. Devices supported will be listed in the title or text. DS51686E-page 9 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide RECOMMENDED READING This documentation describes how to use the MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler. Other useful documents are listed below. The following Microchip documents are available and recommended as supplemental reference resources. Release Notes (Readme Files) For the latest information on Microchip tools, read the associated Release Notes (HTML files) included with the software. MPLAB(R) Assembler, Linker and Utilities for PIC32 MCUs User's Guide (DS51833) A guide to using the 32-bit assembler, object linker, object archiver/librarian and various utilities. 32-Bit Language Tools Libraries (DS51685) Lists all library functions provided with the MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler with detailed descriptions of their use. Dinkum Compleat Libraries The Dinkum Compleat Libraries are organized into a number of headers, files that you include in your program to declare or define library facilities. A link to the Dinkum libraries is available in the MPLAB X IDE application, on the My MPLAB X IDE tab, References & Featured Links section. PIC32MX Configuration Settings Lists the Configuration Bit settings for the Microchip PIC32MX devices supported by the MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler's #pragma config. Device-Specific Documentation The Microchip website contains many documents that describe 32-bit device functions and features. Among these are: * Individual and family data sheets * Family reference manuals * Programmer's reference manuals C Standards Information American National Standard for Information Systems - Programming Language - C. American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 11 West 42nd. Street, New York, New York, 10036. This standard specifies the form and establishes the interpretation of programs expressed in the programming language C. Its purpose is to promote portability, reliability, maintainability and efficient execution of C language programs on a variety of computing systems. C++ Standards Information Stroustrup, Bjarne, C++ Programming Language: Special Edition, 3rd Edition. Addison-Wesley Professional; Indianapolis, Indiana, 46240. ISO/IEC 14882 C++ Standard. The ISO C++ Standard is standardized by ISO (The International Standards Organization) in collaboration with ANSI (The American National Standards Institute), BSI (The British Standards Institute) and DIN (The German national standards organization). This standard specifies the form and establishes the interpretation of programs expressed in the programming language C++. Its purpose is to promote portability, reliability, maintainability and efficient execution of C++ language programs on a variety of computing systems. DS51686E-page 10 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Preface C Reference Manuals Harbison, Samuel P. and Steele, Guy L., C A Reference Manual, Fourth Edition, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 07632. Kernighan, Brian W. and Ritchie, Dennis M., The C Programming Language, Second Edition. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 07632. Kochan, Steven G., Programming In ANSI C, Revised Edition. Hayden Books, Indianapolis, Indiana 46268. Plauger, P.J., The Standard C Library, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 07632. Van Sickle, Ted., Programming Microcontrollers in C, First Edition. LLH Technology Publishing, Eagle Rock, Virginia 24085. GCC Documents http://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/ http://sourceware.org/binutils/ myMICROCHIP PERSONALIZED NOTIFICATION SERVICE Microchip's personal notification service helps keep customers current on their Microchip products of interest. Subscribers will receive e-mail notification whenever there are changes, updates, revisions or errata related to a specified product family or development tool. Please visit http://www.microchip.com/pcn to begin the registration process and select your preferences to receive personalized notifications. A FAQ and registration details are available on the page, which can be opened by selecting the link above. When you are selecting your preferences, choosing "Development Systems" will populate the list with available development tools. The main categories of tools are listed below: * Compilers - The latest information on Microchip C/C++ compilers, assemblers, linkers and other language tools. These include all MPLAB C/C++ compilers; all MPLAB assemblers (including MPASMTM assembler); all MPLAB linkers (including MPLINKTM object linker); and all MPLAB librarians (including MPLIBTM object librarian). * Emulators - The latest information on Microchip in-circuit emulators.These include the MPLAB REAL ICETM and MPLAB ICE 2000 in-circuit emulators * In-Circuit Debuggers - The latest information on Microchip in-circuit debuggers. These include the MPLAB ICD 2 and 3 in-circuit debuggers and PICkitTM 2 and 3 debug express. * MPLAB IDE/MPLAB X IDE - The latest information on Microchip MPLAB IDE, the Windows(R) Integrated Development Environment, or MPLAB X IDE, the open source, cross-platform Integrated Development Environment. These lists focus on the IDE, Project Manager, Editor and Simulator, as well as general editing and debugging features. * Programmers - The latest information on Microchip programmers. These include the device (production) programmers MPLAB REAL ICE in-circuit emulator, MPLAB ICD 3 in-circuit debugger, MPLAB PM3 and development (nonproduction) programmers MPLAB ICD 2 in-circuit debugger, PICSTART(R) Plus and PICkit 2 and 3. * Starter/Demo Boards - These include MPLAB Starter Kit boards, PICDEMTM demo boards, and various other evaluation boards. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 11 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide THE MICROCHIP WEB SITE Microchip provides online support via our web site at http://www.microchip.com. This web site is used as a means to make files and information easily available to customers. Accessible by using your favorite Internet browser, the web site contains the following information: * Product Support - Data sheets and errata, application notes and sample programs, design resources, user's guides and hardware support documents, latest software releases and archived software * General Technical Support - Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs), technical support requests, online discussion groups, Microchip consultant program member listing * Business of Microchip - Product selector and ordering guides, latest Microchip press releases, listing of seminars and events, listings of Microchip sales offices, distributors and factory representatives MICROCHIP FORUMS Microchip provides additional online support via our web forums at http://www.microchip.com/forums. Currently available forums are: * * * * Development Tools 8-bit PIC(R) MCUs 16-bit PIC MCUs 32-bit PIC MCUs CUSTOMER SUPPORT Users of Microchip products can receive assistance through several channels: * * * * Distributor or Representative Local Sales Office Field Application Engineer (FAE) Technical Support Customers should contact their distributor, representative or field application engineer (FAE) for support. Local sales offices are also available to help customers. A listing of sales offices and locations is included in the back of this document. See our web site for a complete, up-to-date listing of sales offices. Technical support is available through the web site at http://support.microchip.com. Documentation errors or comments may be emailed to docerrors@microchip.com. DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY Revision D (January 2012) * Changed product name from MPLAB C32 C Compiler to MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler. Completely reorganized document to align with other Microchip compiler documentation. Revision E (July 2012) * Added information pertaining to C++ throughout the document. * Added new section describing the Common Compiler Interface (CCI) Standard DS51686E-page 12 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Chapter 1. Compiler Overview 1.1 INTRODUCTION The MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler is defined and described in the following topics: * Device Description * Compiler Description and Documentation * Compiler and Other Development Tools 1.2 DEVICE DESCRIPTION The MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler fully supports all Microchip 32-bit devices. 1.3 COMPILER DESCRIPTION AND DOCUMENTATION The MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler is a full-featured, optimizing compiler that translates standard ANSI C programs into 32-bit device assembly language source. The compiler also supports many command-line options and language extensions that allow full access to the 32-bit device hardware capabilities, and affords fine control of the compiler code generator. The compiler is a port of the GCC compiler from the Free Software Foundation. The compiler is available for several popular operating systems, including 32 and 64-bit Windows(R), Linux and Apple OS X. The compiler can run in one of three operating modes: Free, Standard or PRO. The Standard and PRO operating modes are licensed modes and require an activation key and Internet connectivity to enable them. Free mode is available for unlicensed customers. The basic compiler operation, supported devices and available memory are identical across all modes. The modes only differ in the level of optimization employed by the compiler. 1.3.1 Conventions Throughout this manual, the term "the compiler" is often used. It can refer to either all, or some subset of, the collection of applications that form the MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler. Often it is not important to know, for example, whether an action is performed by the parser or code generator application, and it is sufficient to say it was performed by "the compiler". It is also reasonable for "the compiler" to refer to the command-line driver (or just driver) as this is the application that is always executed to invoke the compilation process. The driver for the MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler package is called xc32-gcc. The driver for the C/ASM projects is also xc32-gcc. The driver for C/C++/ASM projects is xc32-g++. The drivers and their options are discussed in Section 3.9 "Driver Option Descriptions". Following this view, "compiler options" should be considered command-line driver options, unless otherwise specified in this manual. Similarly "compilation" refers to all, or some part of, the steps involved in generating source code into an executable binary image. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 13 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 1.3.2 ANSI C Standards The compiler is a fully validated compiler that conforms to the ANSI C standard as defined by the ANSI specification (ANSI x3.159-1989) and described in Kernighan and Ritchie's The C Programming Language (second edition). The ANSI standard includes extensions to the original C definition that are now standard features of the language. These extensions enhance portability and offer increased capability. In addition, language extensions for PIC32 MCU embedded-control applications are included. 1.3.3 Optimization The compiler uses a set of sophisticated optimization passes that employ many advanced techniques for generating efficient, compact code from C/C++ source. The optimization passes include high-level optimizations that are applicable to any C/C++ code, as well as PIC32 MCU-specific optimizations that take advantage of the particular features of the device architecture. For more on optimizations, see Chapter 15. "Optimizations". 1.3.4 ANSI Standard Library Support The compiler is distributed with a complete ANSI C standard library. All library functions have been validated and conform to the ANSI C library standard. The library includes functions for string manipulation, dynamic memory allocation, data conversion, timekeeping and math functions (trigonometric, exponential and hyperbolic). The standard I/O functions for file handling are also included, and, as distributed, they support full access to the host file system using the command-line simulator. The fully functional source code for the low-level file I/O functions is provided in the compiler distribution, and may be used as a starting point for applications that require this capability. 1.3.5 ISO/IEC C++ Standard The compiler is distributed with the 2003 Standard C++ Library. Note: 1.3.6 Do not specify an MPLAB XC32 system include directory (e.g. /pic32mx/include/) in your project properties. The xc32-gcc and xc32-g++ compilation drivers automatically select the XC libc or the Dinkumware libc and their respective include-file directory for you. Manually adding a system include file path may disrupt this mechanism and cause the incorrect libc include files to be compiled into your project, causing a conflict between the include files and the library. Note that adding a system include path to your project properties has never been a recommended practice. Compiler Driver The compiler includes a powerful command-line driver program. Using the driver program, application programs can be compiled, assembled and linked in a single step. 1.3.7 Documentation The C compiler is supported under both the MPLAB IDE v8.xx or higher, and the MPLAB X IDE. For C++, MPLAB X IDE v1.40 or higher is required. For simplicity, both IDEs are referred to throughout the book as simply MPLAB IDE. Features that are unique to specific devices, and therefore specific compilers, are noted with "DD" text the column (see the Preface) and text identifying the devices to which the information applies. DS51686E-page 14 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Compiler Overview 1.4 COMPILER AND OTHER DEVELOPMENT TOOLS The compiler works with many other Microchip tools including: * MPLAB XC32 assembler and linker - see the "MPLAB(R) Assembler, Linker and Utilities for PIC32 MCUs User's Guide". * MPLAB IDE v8.xx and MPLAB X IDE (C++ required MPLAB X IDE v1.30 or higher) * The MPLAB Simulator * All Microchip debug tools and programmers * Demo boards and starter kits that support 32-bit devices 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 15 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide NOTES: DS51686E-page 16 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Chapter 2. Common C Interface 2.1 INTRODUCTION The Common C Interface (CCI) is available with all MPLAB XC C compilers and is designed to enhance code portability between these compilers. For example, CCI-conforming code would make it easier to port from a PIC18 MCU using the MPLAB XC8 C compiler to a PIC32 MCU using the MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler. The CCI assumes that your source code already conforms to the ANSI Standard. If you intend to use the CCI, it is your responsibility to write code that conforms. Legacy projects will need to be migrated to achieve conformance. A compiler option must also be set to ensure that the operation of the compiler is consistent with the interface when the project is built. The following topics are examined in this chapter: * * * * * 2.2 Background -- The Desire for Portable Code Using the CCI ANSI Standard Refinement ANSI Standard Extensions Compiler Features BACKGROUND - THE DESIRE FOR PORTABLE CODE All programmers want to write portable source code. Portability means that the same source code can be compiled and run in a different execution environment than that for which it was written. Rarely can code be one hundred percent portable, but the more tolerant it is to change, the less time and effort it takes to have it running in a new environment. Embedded engineers typically think of code portability as being across target devices, but this is only part of the situation. The same code could be compiled for the same target but with a different compiler. Differences between those compilers might lead to the code failing at compile time or runtime, so this must be considered as well. You may only write code for one target device and only use one brand of compiler, but if there is no regulation of the compiler's operation, simply updating your compiler version may change your code's behavior. Code must be portable across targets, tools, and time to be truly flexible. Clearly, this portability cannot be achieved by the programmer alone, since the compiler vendors can base their products on different technologies, implement different features and code syntax, or improve the way their product works. Many a great compiler optimization has broken many an unsuspecting project. Standards for the C language have been developed to ensure that change is managed and code is more portable. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) publishes standards for many disciplines, including programming languages. The ANSI C Standard is a universally adopted standard for the C programming language. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 17 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 2.2.1 The ANSI Standard The ANSI C Standard has to reconcile two opposing goals: freedom for compilers vendors to target new devices and improve code generation, with the known functional operation of source code for programmers. If both goals can be met, source code can be made portable. The standard is implemented as a set of rules which detail not only the syntax that a conforming C program must follow, but the semantic rules by which that program will be interpreted. Thus, for a compiler to conform to the standard, it must ensure that a conforming C program functions as described by the standard. The standard describes implementation, the set of tools and the runtime environment on which the code will run. If any of these change, e.g., you build for, and run on, a different target device, or if you update the version of the compiler you use to build, then you are using a different implementation. The standard uses the term behavior to mean the external appearance or action of the program. It has nothing to do with how a program is encoded. Since the standard is trying to achieve goals that could be construed as conflicting, some specifications appear somewhat vague. For example, the standard states that an int type must be able to hold at least a 16-bit value, but it does not go as far as saying what the size of an int actually is; and the action of right-shifting a signed integer can produce different results on different implementations; yet, these different results are still ANSI C compliant. If the standard is too strict, device architectures may not allow the compiler to conform1. But, if it is too weak, programmers would see wildly differing results within different compilers and architectures, and the standard would loose its effectiveness. The standard organizes source code whose behavior is not fully defined into groups that include the following behaviors: Implementation-defined behavior This is unspecified behavior where each implementation documents how the choice is made. Unspecified behavior The standard provides two or more possibilities and imposes no further requirements on which possibility is chosen in any particular instance. Undefined behavior This is behavior for which the standard imposes no requirements. Code that strictly conforms to the standard does not produce output that is dependent on any unspecified, undefined, or implementation-defined behavior. The size of an int, which we used as an example earlier, falls into the category of behavior that is defined by implementation. That is to say, the size of an int is defined by which compiler is being used, how that compiler is being used, and the device that is being targeted. All the MPLAB XC compilers conform to the ANS X3.159-1989 Standard for programming languages (with the exception of the XC8 compiler's inability to allow recursion, as mentioned in the footnote). This is commonly called the C89 Standard. Some features from the later standard, C99, are also supported. 1. Case in point: The mid-range PIC(R) microcontrollers do not have a data stack. Because a compiler targeting this device cannot implement recursion, it (strictly speaking) cannot conform to the ANSI C Standard. This example illustrate a situation in which the standard is too strict for mid-range devices and tools. DS51686E-page 18 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Common C Interface For freestanding implementations - or for what we typically call embedded applications - the standard allows non-standard extensions to the language, but obviously does not enforce how they are specified or how they work. When working so closely to the device hardware, a programmer needs a means of specifying device setup and interrupts, as well as utilizing the often complex world of small-device memory architectures. This cannot be offered by the standard in a consistent way. While the ANSI C Standard provides a mutual understanding for programmers and compiler vendors, programmers need to consider the implementation-defined behavior of their tools and the probability that they may need to use extensions to the C language that are non-standard. Both of these circumstances can have an impact on code portability. 2.2.2 The Common C Interface The Common C Interface (CCI) supplements the ANSI C Standard and makes it easier for programmers to achieve consistent outcomes on all Microchip devices when using any of the MPLAB XC C compilers. It delivers the following improvements, all designed with portability in mind. Refinement of the ANSI C Standard The CCI documents specific behavior for some code in which actions are implementation-defined behavior under the ANSI C Standard. For example, the result of right-shifting a signed integer is fully defined by the CCI. Note that many implementation-defined items that closely couple with device characteristics, such as the size of an int, are not defined by the CCI. Consistent syntax for non-standard extensions The CCI non-standard extensions are mostly implemented using keywords with a uniform syntax. They replace keywords, macros and attributes that are the native compiler implementation. The interpretation of the keyword may differ across each compiler, and any arguments to the keywords may be device specific. Coding guidelines The CCI may indicate advice on how code should be written so that it can be ported to other devices or compilers. While you may choose not to follow the advice, it will not conform to the CCI. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 19 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 2.3 USING THE CCI The CCI allows enhanced portability by refining implementation-defined behavior and standardizing the syntax for extensions to the language. The CCI is something you choose to follow and put into effect, thus it is relevant for new projects, although you may choose to modify existing projects so they conform. For your project to conform to the CCI, you must do the following things. Enable the CCI Select the MPLAB IDE widget Use CCI Syntax in your project, or use the command-line option that is equivalent. Include <xc.h> in every module Some CCI features are only enabled if this header is seen by the compiler. Ensure ANSI compliance Code that does not conform to the ANSI C Standard does not confirm to the CCI. Observe refinements to ANSI by the CCI Some ANSI implementation-defined behavior is defined explicitly by the CCI. Use the CCI extensions to the language Use the CCI extensions rather than the native language extensions The next sections detail specific items associated with the CCI. These items are segregated into those that refine the standard, those that deal with the ANSI C Standard extensions, and other miscellaneous compiler options and usage. Guidelines are indicated with these items. If any implementation-defined behavior or any non-standard extension is not discussed in this document, then it is not part of the CCI. For example, GCC case ranges, label addresses and 24-bit short long types are not part of the CCI. Programs which use these features do not conform to the CCI. The compiler may issue a warning or error to indicate when you use a non-CCI feature and the CCI is enabled. DS51686E-page 20 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Common C Interface 2.4 ANSI STANDARD REFINEMENT The following topics describe how the CCI refines the implementation-defined behaviors outlined in the ANSI C Standard. 2.4.1 Source File Encoding Under the CCI, a source file must be written using characters from the 7-bit ASCII set. Lines may be terminated using a line feed (\n) or carriage return (\r) that is immediately followed by a line feed. Escaped characters may be used in character constants or string literals to represent extended characters not in the basic character set. 2.4.1.1 EXAMPLE The following shows a string constant being defined that uses escaped characters. const char myName[] = "Bj\370rk\n"; 2.4.1.2 DIFFERENCES All compilers have used this character set. 2.4.1.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI No action required. 2.4.2 The Prototype for main The prototype for the main() function is int main(void); 2.4.2.1 EXAMPLE The following shows an example of how main() might be defined int main(void) { while(1) process(); } 2.4.2.2 DIFFERENCES The 8-bit compilers used a void return type for this function. 2.4.2.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI Each program has one definition for the main() function. Confirm the return type for main() in all projects previously compiled for 8-bit targets. 2.4.3 Header File Specification Header file specifications that use directory separators do not conform to the CCI. 2.4.3.1 EXAMPLE The following example shows two conforming include directives. #include <usb_main.h> #include "global.h" 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 21 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 2.4.3.2 DIFFERENCES Header file specifications that use directory separators have been allowed in previous versions of all compilers. Compatibility problems arose when Windows-style separators "\" were used and the code compiled under other host operating systems. Under the CCI, no directory specifiers should be used. 2.4.3.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI Any #include directives that use directory separators in the header file specifications should be changed. Remove all but the header file name in the directive. Add the directory path to the compiler's include search path or MPLAB IDE equivalent. This will force the compiler to search the directories specified with this option. For example, the following code: #include <inc/lcd.h> should be changed to: #include <lcd.h> and the path to the inc directory added to the compiler's header search path in your MPLAB IDE project properties, or on the command-line as follows: -Ilcd 2.4.4 Include Search Paths When you include a header file under the CCI, the file should be discoverable in the paths searched by the compiler detailed below. For any header files specified in angle bracket delimiters < >, the search paths should be those specified by -I options (or the equivalent MPLAB IDE option), then the standard compiler include directories. The -I options are searched in the order in which they are specified. For any file specified in quote characters " ", the search paths should first be the current working directory. In the case of an MPLAB X project, the current working directory is the directory in which the C source file is located. If unsuccessful, the search paths should be the same directories searched when the header files is specified in angle bracket delimiters. Any other options to specify search paths for header files do not conform to the CCI. 2.4.4.1 EXAMPLE If including a header file as in the following directive #include "myGlobals.h" The header file should be locatable in the current working directory, or the paths specified by any -I options, or the standard compiler directories. If it is located elsewhere, this does not conform to the CCI. 2.4.4.2 DIFFERENCES The compiler operation under the CCI is not changed. This is purely a coding guide line. 2.4.4.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI Remove any option that specifies header file search paths other than the -I option (or the equivalent MPLAB IDE option), and use the -I option in place of this. Ensure the header file can be found in the directories specified in this section. DS51686E-page 22 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Common C Interface 2.4.5 The Number of Significant Initial Characters in an Identifier At least the first 255 characters in an identifier (internal and external) are significant. This extends upon the requirement of the ANSI C Standard which states a lower number of significant characters are used to identify an object. 2.4.5.1 EXAMPLE The following example shows two poorly named variables, but names which are considered unique under the CCI. int stateOfPortBWhenTheOperatorHasSelectedAutomaticModeAndMotorIsRunningFast; int stateOfPortBWhenTheOperatorHasSelectedAutomaticModeAndMotorIsRunningSlow; 2.4.5.2 DIFFERENCES Former 8-bit compilers used 31 significant characters by default, but an option allowed this to be extended. The 16- and 32-bit compilers did not impose a limit on the number of significant characters. 2.4.5.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI No action required. You may take advantage of the less restrictive naming scheme. 2.4.6 Sizes of Types The sizes of the basic C types, for example char, int and long, are not fully defined by the CCI. These types, by design, reflect the size of registers and other architectural features in the target device. They allow the device to efficiently access objects of this type. The ANSI C Standard does, however, indicate minimum requirements for these types, as specified in <limits.h>. If you need fixed-size types in your project, use the types defined in <stdint.h>, e.g., uint8_t or int16_t. These types are consistently defined across all XC compilers, even outside of the CCI. Essentially, the C language offers a choice of two groups of types: those that offer sizes and formats that are tailored to the device you are using; or those that have a fixed size, regardless of the target. 2.4.6.1 EXAMPLE The following example shows the definition of a variable, native, whose size will allow efficient access on the target device; and a variable, fixed, whose size is clearly indicated and remains fixed, even though it may not allow efficient access on every device. int native; int16_t fixed; 2.4.6.2 DIFFERENCES This is consistent with previous types implemented by the compiler. 2.4.6.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI If you require a C type that has a fixed size, regardless of the target device, use one of the types defined by <stdint.h>. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 23 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 2.4.7 Plain char Types The type of a plain char is unsigned char. It is generally recommended that all definitions for the char type explicitly state the signedness of the object. 2.4.7.1 EXAMPLE The following example char foobar; defines an unsigned char object called foobar. 2.4.7.2 DIFFERENCES The 8-bit compilers have always treated plain char as an unsigned type. The 16- and 32-bit compilers used signed char as the default plain char type. The -funsigned-char option on those compilers changed the default type to be unsigned char. 2.4.7.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI Any definition of an object defined as a plain char and using the 16- or 32-bit compilers needs review. Any plain char that was intended to be a signed quantity should be replaced with an explicit definition, for example. signed char foobar; You may use the -funsigned-char option on XC16/32 to change the type of plain char, but since this option is not supported on XC8, the code is not strictly conforming. 2.4.8 Signed Integer Representation The value of a signed integer is determined by taking the two's complement of the integer. 2.4.8.1 EXAMPLE The following shows a variable, test, that is assigned the value -28 decimal. signed char test = 0xE4; 2.4.8.2 DIFFERENCES All compilers have represented signed integers in the way described in this section. 2.4.8.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI No action required. DS51686E-page 24 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Common C Interface 2.4.9 Integer conversion When converting an integer type to a signed integer of insufficient size, the original value is truncated from the most-significant bit to accommodate the target size. 2.4.9.1 EXAMPLE The following shows an assignment of a value that will be truncated. signed char destination; unsigned int source = 0x12FE; destination = source; Under the CCI, the value of destination after the alignment will be -2 (i.e., the bit pattern 0xFE). 2.4.9.2 DIFFERENCES All compilers have performed integer conversion in an identical fashion to that described in this section. 2.4.9.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI No action required. 2.4.10 Bit-wise Operations on Signed Values Bitwise operations on signed values act on the two's complement representation, including the sign bit. See also Section 2.4.11 "Right-shifting Signed Values". 2.4.10.1 EXAMPLE The following shows an example of a negative quantity involved in a bitwise AND operation. signed char output, input = -13; output = input & 0x7E; Under the CCI, the value of output after the assignment will be 0x72. 2.4.10.2 DIFFERENCES All compilers have performed bitwise operations in an identical fashion to that described in this section. 2.4.10.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI No action required. 2.4.11 Right-shifting Signed Values Right-shifting a signed value will involve sign extension. This will preserve the sign of the original value. 2.4.11.1 EXAMPLE The following shows an example of a negative quantity involved in a bitwise AND operation. signed char input, output = -13; output = input >> 3; Under the CCI, the value of output after the assignment will be -2 (i.e., the bit pattern 0xFE). 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 25 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 2.4.11.2 DIFFERENCES All compilers have performed right shifting as described in this section. 2.4.11.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI No action required. 2.4.12 Conversion of Union Member Accessed Using Member With Different Type If a union defines several members of different types and you use one member identifier to try to access the contents of another (whether any conversion is applied to the result) is implementation-defined behavior in the standard. In the CCI, no conversion is applied and the bytes of the union object are interpreted as an object of the type of the member being accessed, without regard for alignment or other possible invalid conditions. 2.4.12.1 EXAMPLE The following shows an example of a union defining several members. union { signed char code; unsigned int data; float offset; } foobar; Code that attempts to extract offset by reading data is not guaranteed to read the correct value. float result; result = foobbar.data; 2.4.12.2 DIFFERENCES All compilers have not converted union members accessed via other members. 2.4.12.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI No action required. 2.4.13 Default Bit-field int Type The type of a bit-field specified as a plain int will be identical to that of one defined using unsigned int. This is quite different to other objects where the types int, signed and signed int are synonymous. It is recommended that the signedness of the bit-field be explicitly stated in all bit-field definitions. 2.4.13.1 EXAMPLE The following shows an example of a structure tag containing bit-fields which are unsigned integers and with the size specified. struct int int int }; DS51686E-page 26 OUTPUTS { direction :1; parity :3; value :4; 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Common C Interface 2.4.13.2 DIFFERENCES The 8-bit compilers have previously issued a warning if type int was used for bit-fields, but would implement the bit-field with an unsigned int type. The 16- and 32-bit compilers have implemented bit-fields defined using int as having a signed int type, unless the option -funsigned-bitfields was specified. 2.4.13.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI Any code that defines a bit-field with the plain int type should be reviewed. If the intention was for these to be signed quantities, then the type of these should be changed to signed int, for example, in: struct WAYPT { int log int direction }; :3; :4; the bit-field type should be changed to signed int, as in: struct WAYPT { signed int log :3; signed int direction :4; }; 2.4.14 Bit-fields Straddling a Storage Unit Boundary Whether a bit-field can straddle a storage unit boundary is implementation-defined behavior in the standard. In the CCI, bit-fields will not straddle a storage unit boundary; a new storage unit will be allocated to the structure, and padding bits will fill the gap. Note that the size of a storage unit differs with each compiler as this is based on the size of the base data type (e.g., int) from which the bit-field type is derived. On 8-bit compilers this unit is 8-bits in size; for 16-bit compilers, it is 16 bits; and for 32-bit compilers, it is 32 bits in size. 2.4.14.1 EXAMPLE The following shows a structure containing bit-fields being defined. struct { unsigned first : 6; unsigned second :6; } order; Under the CCI and using XC8, the storage allocation unit is byte sized. The bit-field second, will be allocated a new storage unit since there are only 2 bits remaining in the first storage unit in which first is allocated. The size of this structure, order, will be 2 bytes. 2.4.14.2 DIFFERENCES This allocation is identical with that used by all previous compilers. 2.4.14.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI No action required. 2.4.15 The Allocation Order of Bits-field The memory ordering of bit-fields into their storage unit is not specified by the ANSI C Standard. In the CCI, the first bit defined will be the least significant bit of the storage unit in which it will be allocated. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 27 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 2.4.15.1 EXAMPLE The following shows a structure containing bit-fields being defined. struct { unsigned lo : 1; unsigned mid :6; unsigned hi : 1; } foo; The bit-field lo will be assigned the least significant bit of the storage unit assigned to the structure foo. The bit-field mid will be assigned the next 6 least significant bits, and hi, the most significant bit of that same storage unit byte. 2.4.15.2 DIFFERENCES This is identical with the previous operation of all compilers. 2.4.15.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI No action required. 2.4.16 The NULL macro The NULL macro is defined in <stddef.h>; however, its definition is implementation-defined behavior. Under the CCI, the definition of NULL is the expression (0). 2.4.16.1 EXAMPLE The following shows a pointer being assigned a null pointer constant via the NULL macro. int * ip = NULL; The value of NULL, (0), is implicitly cast to the destination type. 2.4.16.2 DIFFERENCES The 32-bit compilers previously assigned NULL the expression ((void *)0). 2.4.16.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI No action required. 2.4.17 Floating-point sizes Under the CCI, floating-point types must not be smaller than 32 bits in size. 2.4.17.1 EXAMPLE The following shows the definition for outY, which will be at least 32-bit in size. float outY; 2.4.17.2 DIFFERENCES The 8-bit compilers have allowed the use of 24-bit float and double types. 2.4.17.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI When using 8-bit compilers, the float and double type will automatically be made 32 bits in size once the CCI mode is enabled. Review any source code that may have assumed a float or double type and may have been 24 bits in size. No migration is required for other compilers. DS51686E-page 28 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Common C Interface 2.5 ANSI STANDARD EXTENSIONS The following topics describe how the CCI provides device-specific extensions to the standard. 2.5.1 Generic Header File A single header file <xc.h> must be used to declare all compiler- and device-specific types and SFRs. You must include this file into every module to conform with the CCI. Some CCI definitions depend on this header being seen. 2.5.1.1 EXAMPLE The following shows this header file being included, thus allowing conformance with the CCI, as well as allowing access to SFRs. #include <xc.h> 2.5.1.2 DIFFERENCES Some 8-bit compilers used <htc.h> as the equivalent header. Previous versions of the 16- and 32-bit compilers used a variety of headers to do the same job. 2.5.1.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI Change: #include <htc.h> used previously in 8-bit compiler code, or family-specific header files as in the following examples: #include #include #include #include #include <p32xxxx.h> <p30fxxxx.h> <p33Fxxxx.h> <p24Fxxxx.h> "p30f6014.h" to: #include <xc.h> 2.5.2 Absolute addressing Variables and functions can be placed at an absolute address by using the __at() construct.qualifier Note that XC16/32 may require the variable or function to be placed in a special section for absolute addressing to work. Stack-based (auto and parameter) variables cannot use the __at() specifier. 2.5.2.1 EXAMPLE The following shows two variables and a function being made absolute. int scanMode __at(0x200); const char keys[] __at(123) = { 'r', 's', 'u', 'd'}; int modify(int x) __at(0x1000) { return x * 2 + 3; } 2.5.2.2 DIFFERENCES The 8-bit compilers have used an @ symbol to specify an absolute address. The 16- and 32-bit compilers have used the address attribute to specify an object's address. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 29 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 2.5.2.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI Avoid making objects and functions absolute if possible. In XC8, change absolute object definitions such as the following example: int scanMode @ 0x200; to: int scanMode __at(0x200); In XC16/32, change code such as: int scanMode __attribute__(address(0x200))); to: int scanMode __at(0x200); 2.5.2.4 CAVEATS If the __at() and __section() specifiers are both applied to an object when using XC8, the __section() specifier is currently ignored. 2.5.3 Far Objects and Functions The __far qualifier may be used to indicate that variables or functions may be located in `far memory'. Exactly what constitutes far memory is dependent on the target device, but it is typically memory that requires more complex code to access. Expressions involving far-qualified objects may generate slower and larger code. Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on the semantics of this qualifier. Some devices may not have such memory implemented, in which case, use of this qualifier will be ignored. Stack-based (auto and parameter) variables cannot use the __far specifier. 2.5.3.1 EXAMPLE The following shows a variable and function qualified using __far. __far int serialNo; __far int ext_getCond(int selector); 2.5.3.2 DIFFERENCES The 8-bit compilers have used the qualifier far to indicate this meaning. Functions could not be qualified as far. The 16-bit compilers have used the far attribute with both variables and functions. The 32-bit compilers have used the far attribute with functions, only. DS51686E-page 30 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Common C Interface 2.5.3.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI For 8-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the far qualifier, as in the following example: far char template[20]; to __far, i.e., __far char template[20]; In the 16- and 32-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the far attribute, as in the following void bar(void) __attribute__ ((far)); int tblIdx __attribute__ ((far)); to void __far bar(void); int __far tblIdx; 2.5.3.4 CAVEATS None. 2.5.4 Near Objects The __near qualifier may be used to indicate that variables or functions may be located in `near memory'. Exactly what constitutes near memory is dependent on the target device, but it is typically memory that can be accessed with less complex code. Expressions involving near-qualified objects may be faster and result in smaller code. Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on the semantics of this qualifier. Some devices may not have such memory implemented, in which case, use of this qualifier will be ignored. Stack-based (auto and parameter) variables cannot use the __near specifier. 2.5.4.1 EXAMPLE The following shows a variable and function qualified using __near. __near int serialNo; __near int ext_getCond(int selector); 2.5.4.2 DIFFERENCES The 8-bit compilers have used the qualifier near to indicate this meaning. Functions could not be qualified as near. The 16-bit compilers have used the near attribute with both variables and functions. The 32-bit compilers have used the near attribute for functions, only. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 31 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 2.5.4.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI For 8-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the near qualifier, as in the following example: near char template[20]; to __near, i.e., __near char template[20]; In 16- and 32-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the near attribute, as in the following void bar(void) __attribute__ ((near)); int tblIdx __attribute__ ((near)); to void __near bar(void); int __near tblIdx; 2.5.4.4 CAVEATS None. 2.5.5 Persistent Objects The __persistent qualifier may be used to indicate that variables should not be cleared by the runtime startup code. Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on the semantics of this qualifier. 2.5.5.1 EXAMPLE The following shows a variable qualified using __persistent. __persistent int serialNo; 2.5.5.2 DIFFERENCES The 8-bit compilers have used the qualifier, persistent, to indicate this meaning. The 16- and 32-bit compilers have used the persistent attribute with variables to indicate they were not to be cleared. 2.5.5.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI With 8-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the persistent qualifier, as in the following example: persistent char template[20]; to __persistent, i.e., __persistent char template[20]; For the 16- and 32-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the persistent attribute, as in the following int tblIdx __attribute__ ((persistent)); to int __persistent tblIdx; 2.5.5.4 CAVEATS None. DS51686E-page 32 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Common C Interface 2.5.6 X and Y Data Objects The __xdata and __ydata qualifiers may be used to indicate that variables may be located in special memory regions. Exactly what constitutes X and Y memory is dependent on the target device, but it is typically memory that can be accessed independently on separate buses. Such memory is often required for some DSP instructions. Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on the semantics of these qualifiers. Some devices may not have such memory implemented; in which case, use of these qualifiers will be ignored. 2.5.6.1 EXAMPLE The following shows a variable qualified using __xdata, as well as another variable qualified with __ydata. __xdata char data[16]; __ydata char coeffs[4]; 2.5.6.2 DIFFERENCES The 16-bit compilers have used the xmemory and ymemory space attribute with variables. Equivalent specifiers have never been defined for any other compiler. 2.5.6.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI For 16-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the space attributes xmemory or ymemory, as in the following example: char __attribute__((space(xmemory)))template[20]; to __xdata, or __ydata, i.e., __xdata char template[20]; 2.5.6.4 CAVEATS None. 2.5.7 Banked Data Objects The __bank(num) qualifier may be used to indicate that variables may be located in a particular data memory bank. The number, num, represents the bank number. Exactly what constitutes banked memory is dependent on the target device, but it is typically a subdivision of data memory to allow for assembly instructions with a limited address width field. Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on the semantics of these qualifiers. Some devices may not have banked data memory implemented, in which case, use of this qualifier will be ignored. The number of data banks implemented will vary from one device to another. 2.5.7.1 EXAMPLE The following shows a variable qualified using __bank(). __bank(0) char start; __bank(5) char stop; 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 33 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 2.5.7.2 DIFFERENCES The 8-bit compilers have used the four qualifiers bank0, bank1, bank2 and bank3 to indicate the same, albeit more limited, memory placement. Equivalent specifiers have never been defined for any other compiler. 2.5.7.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI For 8-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the bankx qualifiers, as in the following example: bank2 int logEntry; to __bank(, i.e., __bank(2) int logEntry; 2.5.7.4 CAVEATS None. 2.5.8 Alignment of Objects The __align(alignment) specifier may be used to indicate that variables must be aligned on a memory address that is a multiple of the alignment specified. The alignment term must be a power of two. Positive values request that the object's start address be aligned; negative values imply the object's end address be aligned. Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on the semantics of this specifier. 2.5.8.1 EXAMPLE The following shows variables qualified using __align() to ensure they end on an address that is a multiple of 8, and start on an address that is a multiple of 2, respectively. __align(-8) int spacer; __align(2) char coeffs[6]; 2.5.8.2 DIFFERENCES An alignment feature has never been implemented on 8-bit compilers. The 16- and 32-bit compilers used the aligned attribute with variables. 2.5.8.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI For 16- and 32-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the aligned attribute, as in the following example: char __attribute__((aligned(4)))mode; to __align, i.e., __align(4) char mode; 2.5.8.4 CAVEATS This feature is not yet implemented on XC8. DS51686E-page 34 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Common C Interface 2.5.9 EEPROM Objects The __eeprom qualifier may be used to indicate that variables should be positioned in EEPROM. Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on the semantics of this qualifier. Some devices may not implement EEPROM. Use of this qualifier for such devices will generate a warning. Stack-based (auto and parameter) variables cannot use the __eeprom specifier. 2.5.9.1 EXAMPLE The following shows a variable qualified using __eeprom. __eeprom int serialNos[4]; 2.5.9.2 DIFFERENCES The 8-bit compilers have used the qualifier, eeprom, to indicate this meaning for some devices. The 16-bit compilers have used the space attribute to allocate variables to the memory space used for EEPROM. 2.5.9.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI For 8-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the eeprom qualifier, as in the following example: eeprom char title[20]; to __eeprom, i.e., __eeprom char title[20]; For 16-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the eedata space attribute, as in the following int mainSw __attribute__ ((space(eedata))); to int __eeprom mainSw; 2.5.9.4 CAVEATS XC8 does not implement the __eeprom qualifiers for any PIC18 devices; this qualifier will work as expected for other 8-bit devices. 2.5.10 Interrupt Functions The __interrupt(type) specifier may be used to indicate that a function is to act as an interrupt service routine. The type is a comma-separated list of keywords that indicate information about the interrupt function. The current interrupt types are: <empty> Implement the default interrupt function low_priority The interrupt function corresponds to the low priority interrupt source (XC8 - PIC18 only) high_priority The interrupt function corresponds to the high priority interrupt source (XC8) 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 35 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide save(symbol-list) Save on entry and restore on exit the listed symbols (XC16) irq(irqid) Specify the interrupt vector associated with this interrupt (XC16) altirq(altirqid) Specify the alternate interrupt vector associated with this interrupt (XC16) preprologue(asm) Specify assembly code to be executed before any compiler-generated interrupt code (XC16) shadow Allow the ISR to utilise the shadow registers for context switching (XC16) auto_psv The ISR will set the PSVPAG register and restore it on exit (XC16) no_auto_psv The ISR will not set the PSVPAG register (XC16) Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on the semantics of this specifier. Some devices may not implement interrupts. Use of this qualifier for such devices will generate a warning. If the argument to the __interrupt specifier does not make sense for the target device, a warning or error will be issued by the compiler. 2.5.10.1 EXAMPLE The following shows a function qualified using __interrupt. __interrupt(low_priority) void getData(void) { if (TMR0IE && TMR0IF) { TMR0IF=0; ++tick_count; } } 2.5.10.2 DIFFERENCES The 8-bit compilers have used the interrupt and low_priority qualifiers to indicate this meaning for some devices. Interrupt routines were by default high priority. The 16- and 32-bit compilers have used the interrupt attribute to define interrupt functions. 2.5.10.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI For 8-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the interrupt qualifier, as in the following examples: void interrupt myIsr(void) void interrupt low_priority myLoIsr(void) to the following, respectively void __interrupt(high_priority) myIsr(void) void __interrupt(low_priority) myLoIsr(void) For 16-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the interrupt attribute, as in the following example: void __attribute__((interrupt,auto_psv,(irq(52)))) myIsr(void); DS51686E-page 36 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Common C Interface to void __interrupt(auto_psv,(irq(52)))) myIsr(void); For 32-bit compilers, the __interrupt() keyword takes two parameters, the vector number and the (optional) IPL value. Change code which uses the interrupt attribute, similar to these examples: void __attribute__((vector(0), interrupt(IPL7AUTO), nomips16)) myisr0_7A(void) {} void __attribute__((vector(1), interrupt(IPL6SRS), nomips16)) myisr1_6SRS(void) {} /* Determine IPL and context-saving mode at runtime */ void __attribute__((vector(2), interrupt(), nomips16)) myisr2_RUNTIME(void) {} to void __interrupt(0,IPL7AUTO) myisr0_7A(void) {} void __interrupt(1,IPL6SRS) myisr1_6SRS(void) {} /* Determine IPL and context-saving mode at runtime */ void __interrupt(2) myisr2_RUNTIME(void) {} 2.5.10.4 CAVEATS None. 2.5.11 Packing Objects The __pack specifier may be used to indicate that structures should not use memory gaps to align structure members, or that individual structure members should not be aligned. Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on the semantics of this specifier. Some compilers may not pad structures with alignment gaps for some devices and use of this specifier for such devices will be ignored. 2.5.11.1 EXAMPLE The following shows a structure qualified using __pack as well as a structure where one member has been explicitly packed. __pack struct DATAPOINT { unsigned char type; int value; } x-point; struct LINETYPE { unsigned char type; __pack int start; long total; } line; 2.5.11.2 DIFFERENCES The __pack specifier is a new CCI specifier available with XC8. This specifier has no apparent effect since the device memory is byte addressable for all data objects. The 16- and 32-bit compilers have used the packed attribute to indicate that a structure member was not aligned with a memory gap. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 37 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 2.5.11.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI No migration is required for XC8. For 16- and 32-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the packed attribute, as in the following example: struct DOT { char a; int x[2] __attribute__ ((packed)); }; to: struct DOT { char a; __pack int x[2]; }; Alternatively, you may pack the entire structure, if required. 2.5.11.4 CAVEATS None. 2.5.12 Indicating Antiquated Objects The __deprecate specifier may be used to indicate that an object has limited longevity and should not be used in new designs. It is commonly used by the compiler vendor to indicate that compiler extensions or features may become obsolete, or that better features have been developed and which should be used in preference. Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on the semantics of this specifier. 2.5.12.1 EXAMPLE The following shows a function which uses the __deprecate keyword. void __deprecate getValue(int mode) { //... } 2.5.12.2 DIFFERENCES No deprecate feature was implemented on 8-bit compilers. The 16- and 32-bit compilers have used the deprecated attribute (note different spelling) to indicate that objects should be avoided if possible. 2.5.12.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI For 16- and 32-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the deprecated attribute, as in the following example: int __attribute__(deprecated) intMask; to: int __deprecate intMask; 2.5.12.4 CAVEATS None. DS51686E-page 38 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Common C Interface 2.5.13 Assigning Objects to Sections The __section() specifier may be used to indicate that an object should be located in the named section (or psect, using the XC8 terminology). This is typically used when the object has special and unique linking requirements which cannot be addressed by existing compiler features. Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on the semantics of this specifier. 2.5.13.1 EXAMPLE The following shows a variable which uses the __section keyword. int __section("comSec") commonFlag; 2.5.13.2 DIFFERENCES The 8-bit compilers have used the #pragma psect directive to redirect objects to a new section, or psect. The operation of the __section() specifier is different to this pragma in several ways, described below. Unlike with the pragma, the new psect created with __section() does not inherit the flags of the psect in which the object would normally have been allocated. This means that the new psect can be linked in any memory area, including any data bank. The compiler will also make no assumptions about the location of the object in the new section. Objects redirected to new psects using the pragma must always be linked in the same memory area, albeit at any address in that area. The __section() specifier allows objects that are initialized to be placed in a different psect. Initialization of the object will still be performed even in the new psect. This will require the automatic allocation of an additional psect (whose name will be the same as the new psect prefixed with the letter i), which will contain the initial values. The pragma cannot be used with objects that are initialized. Objects allocated a different psect with __section() will be cleared by the runtime startup code, unlike objects which use the pragma. You must reserve memory, and locate via a linker option, for any new psect created with a __section() specifier in the current XC8 compiler implementation. The 16- and 32-bit compilers have used the section attribute to indicate a different destination section name. The __section() specifier works in a similar way to the attribute. 2.5.13.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI For XC8, change any occurrence of the #pragma psect directive, such as #pragma psect text%%u=myText int getMode(int target) { //... } to the __section() specifier, as in int __section ("myText") getMode(int target) { //... } For 16- and 32-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the section attribute, as in the following example: int __attribute__((section("myVars"))) intMask; to: int __section("myVars") intMask; 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 39 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 2.5.13.4 CAVEATS With XC8, the __section() specifier cannot be used with any interrupt function. 2.5.14 Specifying Configuration Bits The #pragma config directive may be used to program the configuration bits for a device. The pragma has the form: #pragma config setting = state|value #pragma config register = value where setting is a configuration setting descriptor (e.g., WDT), state is a descriptive value (e.g., ON) and value is a numerical value. The register token may represent a whole configuration word register, e.g., CONFIG1L. Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on the semantics of this directive. 2.5.14.1 EXAMPLE The following shows configuration bits being specified using this pragma. #pragma config WDT=ON, WDTPS = 0x1A 2.5.14.2 DIFFERENCES The 8-bit compilers have used the __CONFIG() macro for some targets that did not already have support for the #pragma config. The 16-bit compilers have used a number of macros to specify the configuration settings. The 32-bit compilers supported the use of #pragma config. 2.5.14.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI For the 8-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the __CONFIG() macro, such as __CONFIG(WDTEN & XT & DPROT) to the #pragma config directive, as in #pragma config WDTE=ON, FOSC=XT, CPD=ON No migration is required if the #pragma config was already used. For the 16-bit compilers, change any occurrence of the _FOSC() or _FBORPOR() macros attribute, as in the following example: _FOSC(CSW_FSCM_ON & EC_PLL16); to: #pragma config FCKSMEM = CSW_ON_FSCM_ON, FPR = ECIO_PLL16 No migration is required for 32-bit code. 2.5.14.4 CAVEATS None. DS51686E-page 40 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Common C Interface 2.5.15 Manifest Macros The CCI defines the general form for macros that manifest the compiler and target device characteristics. These macros can be used to conditionally compile alternate source code based on the compiler or the target device. The macros and macro families are details in Table 2-1. TABLE 2-1: MANIFEST MACROS DEFINED BY THE CCI Name Meaning if defined Example __XC__ Compiled with an MPLAB XC compiler __CCI__ Compiler is CCI compliant and CCI enforce- __CCI__ ment is enabled __XC##__ The specific XC compiler used (## can be 8, __XC8__ 16 or 32) __DEVICEFAMILY__ The family of the selected target device __dsPIC30F__ __DEVICENAME__ The selected target device name __18F452__ 2.5.15.1 __XC__ EXAMPLE The following shows code which is conditionally compiled dependent on the device having EEPROM memory. #ifdef __XC16__ void __interrupt(__auto_psv__) myIsr(void) #else void __interrupt(low_priority) myIsr(void) #endif 2.5.15.2 DIFFERENCES Some of these CCI macros are new (for example __CCI__), and others have different names to previous symbols with identical meaning (for example __18F452 is now __18F452__). 2.5.15.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI Any code which uses compiler-defined macros will need review. Old macros will continue to work as expected, but they are not compliant with the CCI. 2.5.15.4 CAVEATS None. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 41 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 2.5.16 In-line Assembly The asm() statement may be used to insert assembly code in-line with C code. The argument is a C string literal which represents a single assembly instruction. Obviously, the instructions contained in the argument are device specific. Use the native keywords discussed in the Differences section to look up information on the semantics of this statement. 2.5.16.1 EXAMPLE The following shows a MOVLW instruction being inserted in-line. asm("MOVLW _foobar"); 2.5.16.2 DIFFERENCES The 8-bit compilers have used either the asm() or #asm ... #endasm constructs to insert in-line assembly code. This is the same syntax used by the 16- and 32-bit compilers. 2.5.16.3 MIGRATION TO THE CCI For 8-bit compilers change any instance of #asm ... #endasm so that each instruction in this #asm block is placed in its own asm() statement, for example: #asm MOVLW 20 MOVWF _i CLRF Ii+1 #endasm to asm("MOVLW20"); asm("MOVWF _i"); asm("CLRFIi+1"); No migration is required for the 16- or 32-bit compilers. 2.5.16.4 CAVEATS None. DS51686E-page 42 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Common C Interface 2.6 COMPILER FEATURES The following items detail compiler options and features that are not directly associated with source code that 2.6.1 Enabling the CCI It is assumed you are using the MPLAB X IDE to build projects that use the CCI. The widget in the MPLAB X IDE Project Properties to enable CCI conformance is Use CCI Syntax in the Compiler category. A widget with the same name is available in MPLAB IDE v8 under the Compiler tab. If you are not using this IDE, then the command-line options are --CCI for XC8 or -mcci for XC16/32. 2.6.1.1 DIFFERENCES This option has never been implemented previously. 2.6.1.2 MIGRATION TO THE CCI Enable the option. 2.6.1.3 CAVEATS None. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 43 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide NOTES: DS51686E-page 44 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Chapter 3. Compiler Command Line Driver 3.1 INTRODUCTION The command line driver (xc32-gcc or xc32-g++) is the application that can be invoked to perform all aspects of compilation, including C/C++ code generation, assembly and link steps. Even if you use an IDE to assist with compilation, the IDE will ultimately call xc32-gcc for C projects or xc32-g++ for C++ projects. Although the internal compiler applications can be called explicitly from the command line, using the xc32-gcc or xc32-g++ driver is the recommended way to use the compiler as it hides the complexity of all the internal applications used and provides a consistent interface for all compilation steps. This chapter describes the steps the driver takes during compilation, files that the driver can accept and produce, as well as the command line options that control the compiler's operation. It also shows the relationship between these command line options and the controls in the MPLAB IDE Build Options dialog. Topics concerning the command line use of the driver are discussed below. * * * * * * * * 3.2 Invoking the Compiler The C Compilation Sequence The C++ Compilation Sequence Runtime Files Start-up and Initialization Compiler Output Compiler Messages Driver Option Descriptions INVOKING THE COMPILER The compiler is invoked and runs on the command line as specified in the next section. Additionally, environmental variables and input files used by the compiler are discussed in the following sections. 3.2.1 Driver Command Line Format The compilation driver program (xc32-gcc) compiles, assembles and links C and assembly language modules and library archives. The xc32-g++ driver must be used when the module source is written in C++. Most of the compiler command line options are common to all implementations of the GCC toolset (MPLAB XC16 uses the GCC toolset; XC8 does not). A few are specific to the compiler. The basic form of the compiler command line is: xc32-gcc [options] files xc32-g++ [options] files For example, to compile, assemble and link the C source file hello.c, creating the absolute executable hello.elf,execute this command: xc32-gcc -o hello.elf hello.c 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 45 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide Or, to compile, assemble and link the C++ source file hello.cpp, creating the absolute executable hello.elf, execute: xc32-g++ -o hello.elf hello.cpp The available options are described in Section 3.9 "Driver Option Descriptions". It is conventional to supply options (identified by a leading dash "-" before the filenames), although this is not mandatory. The files may be any mixture of C/C++ and assembler source files, relocatable object files (.o) or archive files. The order of the files is important. It may affect the order in which code or data appears in memory or the search order for symbols. Typically archive files are specified after source files. The file types are described in Section 3.2.2 "Input File Types". Note: Command line options and file name extensions are case sensitive. Libraries is a list of user-defined object code library files that will be searched by the linker, in addition to the standard C libraries. The order of these files will determine the order in which they are searched. They are typically placed after the source filenames, but this is not mandatory. It is assumed in this manual that the compiler applications are either in the console's search path, the appropriate environment variables have been specified, or the full path is specified when executing any application. Environment Variables The variables in this section are optional, but, if defined, they will be used by the compiler. The compiler driver, or other subprogram, may choose to determine an appropriate value for some of the following environment variables if they are not set. The driver, or other subprogram, takes advantage of internal knowledge about the installation of the compiler. As long as the installation structure remains intact, with all subdirectories and executables remaining in the same relative position, the driver or subprogram will be able to determine a usable value. The "XC32" variables should be used for new projects; however, the "PIC32" variables may be used for legacy projects. TABLE 3-1: COMPILER-RELATED ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES Option Definition XC32_C_INCLUDE_PATH This variable's value is a semicolon-separated list of directories, PIC32_C_INCLUDE_PATH much like PATH. When the compiler searches for header files, it tries the directories listed in the variable, after the directories specified with -I but before the standard header file directories. If the environment variable is undefined, the preprocessor chooses an appropriate value based on the standard installation. By default, the following directories are searched for include files: <install-path>\pic32mx\include XC32_COMPILER_PATH PIC32_COMPILER_PATH DS51686E-page 46 The value of PIC32_COMPILER_PATH is a semicolon-separated list of directories, much like PATH. The compiler tries the directories thus specified when searching for subprograms, if it can't find the subprograms using PIC32_EXEC_PREFIX. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Compiler Command Line Driver TABLE 3-1: COMPILER-RELATED ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLES Option Definition XC32_EXEC_PREFIX PIC32_EXEC_PREFIX If PIC32_EXEC_PREFIX is set, it specifies a prefix to use in the names of subprograms executed by the compiler. No directory delimiter is added when this prefix is combined with the name of a subprogram, but you can specify a prefix that ends with a slash if you wish. If the compiler cannot find the subprogram using the specified prefix, it tries looking in your PATH environment variable. If the PIC32_EXEC_PREFIX environment variable is unset or set to an empty value, the compiler driver chooses an appropriate value based on the standard installation. If the installation has not been modified, this will result in the driver being able to locate the required subprograms. Other prefixes specified with the -B command line option take precedence over the user- or driver-defined value of PIC32_EXEC_PREFIX. Under normal circumstances it is best to leave this value undefined and let the driver locate subprograms itself. XC32_LIBRARY_PATH PIC32_LIBRARY_PATH This variable's value is a semicolon-separated list of directories, much like PATH. This variable specifies a list of directories to be passed to the linker. The driver's default evaluation of this variable is: <install-path>\lib; <install-path>\pic32mx\lib. TMPDIR If TMPDIR is set, it specifies the directory to use for temporary files. The compiler uses temporary files to hold the output of one stage of compilation that is to be used as input to the next stage: for example, the output of the preprocessor, which is the input to the compiler proper. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 47 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 3.2.2 Input File Types The compilation driver recognizes the following file extensions, which are case sensitive. TABLE 3-2: FILE NAMES Extensions file.c file.cpp Definition A C source file that must be preprocessed. A C++ source file that must be preprocessed. file.h A header file (not to be compiled or linked). file.i A C source file that has already been pre-processed. file.o An object file. file.ii A C++ source file that has already been pre-processed. file.s An assembly language source file. file.S An assembly language source file that must be preprocessed. other A file to be passed to the linker. There are no compiler restrictions imposed on the names of source files, but be aware of case, name-length and other restrictions imposed by your operating system. If you are using an IDE, avoid assembly source files whose base name is the same as the base name of any project in which the file is used. This may result in the source file being overwritten by a temporary file during the build process. The terms "source file" and "module" are often used when talking about computer programs. They are often used interchangeably, but they refer to the source code at different points in the compilation sequence. A source file is a file that contains all or part of a program. They may contain C/C++ code, as well as preprocessor directives and commands. Source files are initially passed to the preprocessor by the driver. A module is the output of the preprocessor, for a given source file, after inclusion of any header files (or other source files) which are specified by #include preprocessor directives. All preprocessor directives and commands (with the possible exception of some commands for debugging) have been removed from these files. These modules are then passed to the remainder of the compiler applications. Thus, a module may be the amalgamation of several source and header files. A module is also often referred to as a translation unit. These terms can also be applied to assembly files, as they too can include other header and source files. DS51686E-page 48 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Compiler Command Line Driver 3.3 THE C COMPILATION SEQUENCE 3.3.1 Single-step C Compilation A single command-line instruction can be used to compile one file or multiple files. 3.3.1.1 COMPILING A SINGLE C FILE This section demonstrates how to compile and link a single file. For the purpose of this discussion, it is assumed the compiler's <install-dir>/bin directory has been added to your PATH variable. The following are other directories of note: * <install-dir>/pic32mx/include the directory for standard C header files. * <install-dir>/pic32mx/include/proc the directory for PIC32MX device-specific header files. * <install-dir>/pic32mx/lib the directory structure for standard libraries and start-up files. * <install-dir>/pic32mx/include/peripheral the directory for PIC32MX peripheral library include files. * <install-dir>/pic32mx/lib/proc the directory for device-specific linker script fragments, register definition files and configuration data may be found. The following is a simple C program that adds two numbers. Create the following program with any text editor and save it as ex1.c. #include <xc.h> #include <plib.h> // Device-Specific Configuration-Bit settings // SYSCLK = 80 MHz (8MHz Crystal/ FPLLIDIV * FPLLMUL / FPLLODIV) // PBCLK = 40 MHz // Primary Osc w/PLL (XT+,HS+,EC+PLL) // WDT OFF // Other options are don't care // #pragma config FPLLMUL = MUL_20, FPLLIDIV = DIV_2, FPLLODIV = DIV_1, FWDTEN = OFF #pragma config POSCMOD = HS, FNOSC = PRIPLL, FPBDIV = DIV_8 unsigned int x, y, z; unsigned int add(unsigned int a, unsigned int b) { return(a+b); } int main(void) { /* Configure the target for maximum performance at 80 MHz. */ SYSTEMConfigPerformance(80000000UL); x = 2; y = 5; z = add(x,y); return 0; } 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 49 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide The first line of the program includes the header file xc.h, which provides definitions for all Special Function Registers (SFRs) on that part. Compile the program by typing the following at the prompt: xc32-gcc -mprocessor=32MX795F512L -o ex1.out ex1.c The command line option -o ex1.out names the output executable file (if the -o option is not specified, then the output file is named a.out). The executable file may be loaded into MPLAB IDE. If a hex file is required, for example, to load into a device programmer, then use the following command: xc32-bin2hex ex1.out This creates an Intel hex file named ex1.hex. 3.3.1.2 COMPILING MULTIPLE C FILES This section demonstrates how to compile and link multiple files in a single step. Move the Add() function into a file called add.c to demonstrate the use of multiple files in an application. That is: File 1 /* ex1.c */ #include <xc.h> #include <plib.h> // Device-Specific Configuration-Bit settings // SYSCLK = 80 MHz (8MHz Crystal/ FPLLIDIV * FPLLMUL / FPLLODIV) // PBCLK = 40 MHz // Primary Osc w/PLL (XT+,HS+,EC+PLL) // WDT OFF // Other options are don't care // #pragma config FPLLMUL = MUL_20, FPLLIDIV = DIV_2, FPLLODIV = DIV_1, FWDTEN = OFF #pragma config POSCMOD = HS, FNOSC = PRIPLL, FPBDIV = DIV_8 int main(void); unsigned int add(unsigned int a, unsigned int b); unsigned int x, y, z; int main(void) { /* Configure the target for maximum performance at 80 MHz. */ SYSTEMConfigPerformance(80000000UL); x = 2; y = 5; z = Add(x,y); return 0; } File 2 /* add.c */ #include <xc.h> unsigned int add(unsigned int a, unsigned int b) { return(a+b); } DS51686E-page 50 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Compiler Command Line Driver Compile both files by typing the following at the prompt: xc32-gcc -mprocessor=32MX795F512L -o ex1.out ex1.c add.c This command compiles the modules ex1.c and add.c. The compiled modules are linked with the compiler libraries and the executable file ex1.out is created. 3.3.2 Multi-step C Compilation Make utilities and IDEs, such as MPLAB IDE, allow for an incremental build of projects that contain multiple source files. When building a project, they take note of which source files have changed since the last build and use this information to speed up compilation. For example, if compiling two source files, but only one has changed since the last build, the intermediate file corresponding to the unchanged source file need not be regenerated. If the compiler is being invoked using a make utility, the make file will need to be configured to use the intermediate files (.o files) and the options used to generate the intermediate files (-c, see Section 3.9.2 "Options for Controlling the Kind of Output"). Make utilities typically call the compiler multiple times: once for each source file to generate an intermediate file, and once to perform the second stage compilation. For example, the files ex1.c and add.c are to be compiled using a make utility. The command lines that the make utility should use to compile these files might be something like: xc32-gcc -mprocessor=32MX795F512L -c ex1.c xc32-gcc -mprocessor=32MX795F512L -c add.c xc32-gcc -mprocessor=32MX795F512L -o ex1.out ex1.o add.o 3.4 THE C++ COMPILATION SEQUENCE 3.4.1 Single-step C++ Compilation A single command-line instruction can be used to compile one file or multiple files. 3.4.1.1 COMPILING A SINGLE C++ FILE This section demonstrates how to compile and link a single file. For the purpose of this discussion, it is assumed the compiler's <install-dir>/bin directory has been added to your PATH variable. The following are other directories of note: * <install-dir>/pic32mx/include/cpp the directory for standard C++ header files. * <install-dir>/pic32mx/include/proc the directory for PIC32MXdevice-specific header files. * <install-dir>/pic32mx/lib the directory structure for standard libraries and start-up files. * <install-dir>/pic32mx/include/peripheral the directory for PIC32 peripheral library include files. * <install-dir>/pic32mx/lib/proc the directory for device-specific linker script fragments, register definition files, and configuration data may be found. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 51 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide The following is a simple C++ program. Create the following program with any plain-text editor and save it as ex2.cpp. /* ex2.cpp */ #include <xc.h> #include <plib.h> // __XC_UART // SYSTEMConfigPerformance() #include <iostream> #include <vector> #include <deque> #include <list> #include <set> #include <map> #include <string> #include <algorithm> #include <iterator> #include <functional> #include <numeric> using namespace std; // Device-Specific Configuration-bit settings #pragma config FPLLMUL=MUL_20, FPLLIDIV=DIV_2, FPLLODIV=DIV_1, FWDTEN=OFF #pragma config POSCMOD=HS, FNOSC=PRIPLL, FPBDIV=DIV_8 template <class T> inline void print_elements (const T& coll, const char* optcstr="") { typename T::const_iterator pos; std::cout << optcstr; for (pos=coll.begin(); pos!=coll.end(); ++pos) { std::cout << *pos << ' '; } std::cout << std::endl; } template <class T> inline void insert_elements (T& coll, int first, int last) { for (int i=first; i<=last; ++i) { coll.insert(coll.end(),i); } } int main(void) { // Configure the target for max performance at 80 MHz. SYSTEMConfigPerformance (80000000UL); // Direct stdout to UART 1 for use with the simulator __XC_UART = 1; deque<int> coll; insert_elements(coll,1,9); insert_elements(coll,1,9); print_elements(coll, "on entry: "); DS51686E-page 52 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Compiler Command Line Driver //sort elements sort (coll.begin(), coll.end()); print_elements(coll, "sorted: "); //sorted reverse sort (coll.begin(), coll.end(), greater<int>()); print_elements(coll, "sorted >: "); while(1); } The first line of the program includes the header file xc.h, which provides definitions for all Special Function Registers (SFRs) on the target device. The second file of the program includes the header file plib.h, which provides the necessary prototypes for the peripheral library. Compile the program by typing the following at a command prompt. xc32-g++ -mprocessor=32MX795F512L -Wl,--defsym=_min_heap_size=0xF000 -o ex2.elf ex2.cpp The option -o ex2.elf names the output executable file. This elf file may be loaded into MPLAB X IDE. If a hex file is required, for example, to load into a device programmer, then use the following command xc32-bin2hex ex2.elf This creates an Intel hex file named ex2.hex. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 53 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 3.4.2 Compiling Multiple C and C++ files This section demonstrates how to compile and link multiple C and C++ files in a single step. File 1 /* main.cpp */ #include <xc.h> #include <plib.h> // __XC_UART // SYSTEMConfigPerformance() #include <iostream> using namespace std; // Device-Specific Configuration-bit settings #pragma config FPLLMUL=MUL_20, FPLLIDIV=DIV_2, FPLLODIV=DIV_1, FWDTEN=OFF #pragma config POSCMOD=HS, FNOSC=PRIPLL, FPBDIV=DIV_8 // add() must have C linkage extern "C" { extern unsigned int add(unsigned int a, unsigned int b); } int main(void) { int myvalue = 6; // Configure the target for max performance at 80 MHz. SYSTEMConfigPerformance (80000000UL); // Direct stdout to UART 1 for use with the simulator __XC_UART = 1; std::cout << "original value: " << myvalue << endl; myvalue = add (myvalue, 3); std::cout << "new value: " << myvalue << endl; while(1); } File 2 /* ex3.c */ unsigned int add(unsigned int a, unsigned int b) { return(a+b); } Compile both files by typing the following at the prompt: xc32-g++ -mprocessor=32MX795F512L -o ex3.elf main.cpp ex3.c The command compiles the modules main.cpp and ex3.c. The compiled modules are linked with the compiler libraries for C++ and the executable file ex3.elf is created. Note: DS51686E-page 54 Use the xc32-g++ driver (as opposed to the xc32-gcc driver) in order to link the project with the C++ support libraries necessary for the C++ source file in the project. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Compiler Command Line Driver 3.5 RUNTIME FILES In addition to the C/C++ and assembly source files specified on the command line, there are also compiler-generated source files and pre-compiled library files which might be compiled into the project by the driver. These files contain: * * * * C/C++ Standard library routines Implicitly called arithmetic routines User-defined library routines The runtime start-up code 3.5.1 Library Files The names of the C/C++ standard library files appropriate for the selected target device, and other driver options, are determined by the driver. The target libraries, called multilibs, are built multiple times with a permuted set of options. When the compiler driver is called to compile and link an application, the driver chooses the version of the target library that has been built with the same options. By default, the 32-bit language tools use the directory <install-directory>/lib/gcc/ to store the specific libraries and the directory <install-directory>/<pic32mx>/lib to store the target-specific libraries. Both of these directory structures contain subdirectories for each of the multilib combinations specified above. These subdirectories, respectively, are as follows: 1. . 2. ./size 3. ./speed 4. ./mips32 5. ./no-float 6. ./mips32/no-float 7. ./size/mips32 8. ./size/no-float 9. ./size/mips32/no-float 10../speed/mips32 11../speed/no-float 12../speed/mips32/no-float The target libraries that are distributed with the compiler are built for the following options: * Size versus speed (-Os vs. -O3) * 16-bit versus 32-bit (-mips16 vs. -mno-mips16) 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 55 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide By default the 32-bit language tools compile for -O0, -mno-mips16, and -msoft-float. Therefore, the options that we are concerned with are -Os or -O3, -mips16, and -mno-float. Libraries built with the following command line options are made available: 1. Default command line options 2. -Os 3. -O3 4. -mips16 5. -mno-float 6. -mips16 -mno-float 7. -Os -mips16 8. -Os -mno-float 9. -Os -mips16 -mno-float 10.-O3 -mips16 11.-O3 -mno-float 12.-O3 -mips16 -mno-float The following examples provide details on which of the multilibs subdirectories are chosen. 1. xc32-gcc foo.c xc32-g++ foo.cpp For this example, no command line options have been specified (i.e., the default command line options are being used). In this case, the .subdirectories are used. 2. xc32-gcc -Os foo.c xc32-g++ -Os foo.cpp For this example, the command line option for optimizing for size has been specified (i.e., -Os is being used). In this case, the ./size subdirectories are used. 3. xc32-gcc -O2 foo.c xc32-g++ -O2 foo.cpp For this example, the command line option for optimizing has been specified; however, this command line option optimizes for neither size nor space (i.e., -O2 is being used). In this case, the .subdirectories are used. 4. xc32-gcc -Os -mips16 foo.c xc32-g++ -Os -mips16 foo.cpp For this example, the command line options for optimizing for size and for MIPS16 code have been specified (i.e., -Os and -mips16 are being used). In this case, the ./size/mips16 subdirectories are used. 3.5.1.1 STANDARD LIBRARIES The C/C++ standard libraries contain a standardized collection of functions, such as string, math and input/output routines. The range of these functions are described in Chapter 13. "Library Routines". These libraries also contain C/C++ routines that are implicitly called by the output code of the code generator. These are routines that perform tasks such as floating-point operations and that may not directly correspond to a C/C++ function call in the source code. DS51686E-page 56 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Compiler Command Line Driver 3.5.1.2 USER-DEFINED LIBRARIES User-defined libraries may be created and linked in with programs as required. Library files are more easy to manage and may result in faster compilation times, but must be compatible with the target device and options for a particular project. Several versions of a library may need to be created to allow it to be used for different projects. User-created libraries that should be searched when building a project can be listed on the command line along with the source files. As with Standard C/C++ library functions, any functions contained in user-defined libraries should have a declaration added to a header file. It is common practice to create one or more header files that are packaged with the library file. These header files can then be included into source code when required. 3.5.2 Peripheral Library Functions Many of the peripherals of the PIC32MX devices are supported by the peripheral library functions provided with the compiler tools. See the "32-Bit Language Tools Libraries" (DS51685) for details on the functions provided. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 57 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 3.6 START-UP AND INITIALIZATION For C: There is only one start-up module, which initializes the C runtime environment. The source code for this is found in <install-directory>/pic32-libs/libpi32c/startup/crt0.S and it is precompiled into the library <install-directory>/pic32mx/lib/crt0.o. Multilib versions of these modules exist in order to support architectural differences between device families. For C++: Code from five object files link sequentially to create a single initialization routine, which initializes the C++ runtime environment. The source code for this is found in <install-directory>/pic32-libs/libpic32/startup. The PIC32 precompiled startup objects are located in <install-directory>/pic32mx/lib/ and the filenames are cpprt0.o, crti.o, and crtn.o. The GCC precompiled startup objects are located in <install-directory>/lib/gcc/pic32mx/<gcc-version>/ and the filenames are crtbegin.o and crtend.o. Multilib variations of these modules exist in order to support architectural differences between device families and also optimization settings. For more information about what the code in these start-up modules actual does, see Section 12.3 "Runtime Start-up Code". 3.7 COMPILER OUTPUT There are many files created by the compiler during the compilation. A large number of these are intermediate files and some are deleted after compilation is complete, but many remain and are used for programming the device, or for debugging purposes. 3.7.1 Output Files The compilation driver can produce output files with the following extensions, which are case-sensitive. TABLE 3-3: FILE NAMES Extensions Definition file.hex Executable file file.elf ELF debug file file.o Object file (intermediate file) file.s Assembly code file (intermediate file) file.i Preprocessed C file (intermediate file) file.ii Preprocessed C++ file (intermediate file) file.map Map file The names of many output files use the same base name as the source file from which they were derived. For example the source file input.c will create an object file called input.o. The main output file is an ELF file called a.out, unless you override that name using the -o option. DS51686E-page 58 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Compiler Command Line Driver If you are using an IDE, such as MPLAB IDE, to specify options to the compiler, there is typically a project file that is created for each application. The name of this project is used as the base name for project-wide output files, unless otherwise specified by the user. However check the manual for the IDE you are using for more details. Note: Throughout this manual, the term project name will refer to the name of the project created in the IDE. The compiler is able to directly produce a number of the output file formats which are used by Microchip development tools. The default behavior of xc32-gcc and xc32-g++ is to produce an ELF output. To make changes to the file's output or the file names, see Section 3.9 "Driver Option Descriptions". 3.7.2 Diagnostic Files Two valuable files produced by the compiler are the assembly list file, produced by the assembler, and the map file, produced by the linker. The assembly list file contains the mapping between the original source code and the generated assembly code. It is useful for information such as how C source was encoded, or how assembly source may have been optimized. It is essential when confirming if compiler-produced code that accesses objects is atomic, and shows the region in which all objects and code are placed. The option to create a listing file in the assembler is -a (or -Wa,-a if passed to the driver). There are many variants to this option, which may be found in the "MPLAB Assembler, Linker and Utilities for PIC32 MCUs User's Guide"(DS51833). To pass the option from the compiler, see Section 3.9.9 "Options for Assembling". There is one list file produced for each build. There is one assembler listing file for each translation unit. This is a pre-link assembler listing so it will not show final addresses. Thus, if you require a list file for each source file, these files must be compiled separately, see Section 3.3.2 "Multi-step C Compilation". This is the case if you build using MPLAB IDE. Each list file will be assigned the module name and extension .lst. The map file shows information relating to where objects were positioned in memory. It is useful for confirming that user-defined linker options were correctly processed, and for determining the exact placement of objects and functions. The option to create a map file in the linker is -Map file (or -Wl,-Map=file if passed to the driver), which may be found in the "MPLAB Assembler, Linker and Utilities for PIC32 User's Guide". To pass the option from the compiler, see Section 3.9.10 "Options for Linking". There is one map file produced when you build a project, assuming the linker was executed and ran to completion. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 59 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 3.8 COMPILER MESSAGES There are three types of messages. These are described below along with the compiler's behavior when encountering a message of each type. Warning Messages indicate source code or some other situation that can be compiled, but is unusual and may lead to a runtime failure of the code. The code or situation that triggered the warning should be investigated; however, compilation of the current module will continue, as will compilation of any remaining modules. Error Messages indicate source code that is illegal or that compilation of this code cannot take place. Compilation will be attempted for the remaining source code in the current module, but no additional modules will be compiled and the compilation process will then conclude. Fatal Error Messages indicate a situation that cannot allow compilation to proceed and which requires the compilation process to stop immediately. For information on options that control compiler output of errors, warnings or comments, see Section 3.9.4 "Options for Controlling the C++ Dialect". 3.9 DRIVER OPTION DESCRIPTIONS All single letter options are identified by a leading dash character, "-", e.g. -c. Some single letter options specify an additional data field which follows the option name immediately and without any whitespace, e.g. -Idir. Options are case sensitive, so -c is a different option to -C. The compiler has many options for controlling compilation, all of which are case sensitive. * * * * * * * * * * * DS51686E-page 60 Options Specific to PIC32MX Devices Options for Controlling the Kind of Output Options for Controlling the C Dialect Options for Controlling the C++ Dialect Options for Debugging Options for Controlling Optimization Options for Controlling the Preprocessor Options for Assembling Options for Linking Options for Directory Search Options for Code Generation Conventions 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Compiler Command Line Driver 3.9.1 Options Specific to PIC32MX Devices These options are specific to the device, not the compiler. TABLE 3-4: PIC32MX DEVICE-SPECIFIC OPTIONS Option Definition -mprocessor Selects the device for which to compile. (e.g., -mprocessor=32MX360F512L) -mips16 -mno-mips16 Generate (do not generate) MIPS16 code. -mno-float Do not use software floating-point libraries. -G num Put global and static items less than or equal to num bytes into the small data or bss section instead of the normal data or bss section. This allows the data to be accessed using a single instruction. All modules should be compiled with the same -G num value. -membedded-data -mno-embedded-data Allocate variables to the read-only data section first if possible, then next in the small data section if possible, otherwise in data. This gives slightly slower code than the default, but reduces the amount of RAM required when executing, and thus may be preferred for some embedded systems. -muninit-const-in-rodata Put uninitialized const variables in the read-only data -mno-uninit-const-in-rodata section. This option is only meaningful in conjunction with -membedded-data. -mcheck-zero-division -mno-check-zero-division Trap (do not trap) on integer division by zero. The default is -mcheck-zero-division. -mmemcpy -mno-memcpy Force (do not force) the use of memcpy() for non-trivial block moves. The default is -mno-memcpy, which allows GCC to inline most constant-sized copies. -mlong-calls -mno-long-calls Disable (do not disable) use of the jal instruction. Calling functions using jal is more efficient but requires the caller and callee to be in the same 256 megabyte segment. This option has no effect on abicalls code. The default is -mno-long-calls. -mno-peripheral-libs -mno-peripheral-libs is now the default. -mperipheral-libs is optional. By default, the peripheral libraries are linked specified via the device-specific linker script. Do not use the standard peripheral libraries when linking. -msmart-io=[0|1|2] This option attempts to statically analyze format strings passed to printf, scanf and the `f' and `v' variations of these functions. Uses of nonfloating-point format arguments will be converted to use an integer-only variation of the library function. For many applications, this feature can reduce program-memory usage. -msmart-io=0 disables this option, while -msmart-io=2 causes the compiler to be optimistic and convert function calls with variable or unknown format arguments. -msmart-io=1 is the default and will convert only when the compiler can prove that floating-point support is not required. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 61 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide TABLE 3-4: PIC32MX DEVICE-SPECIFIC OPTIONS (CONTINUED) Option Definition -mappio-debug Enable the APPIN/APPOUT debugging library functions for the MPLAB(R) ICD 3 debugger and MPLAB REAL ICETM in-circuit emulator. This feature allows you to use the DBPRINTF and related functions and macros as described in the "32-bit Language Tool Libraries" document (DS51685). Enable this option only when using a target PIC32 device that supports the APPIN/APPOUT feature. -mcci Enables the Microchip Common C Interface compilation mode. 3.9.2 Options for Controlling the Kind of Output The following options control the kind of output produced by the compiler. TABLE 3-5: KIND-OF-OUTPUT CONTROL OPTIONS Option Definition -c Compile or assemble the source files, but do not link. The default file extension is .o. -E Stop after the preprocessing stage (i.e., before running the compiler proper). The default output file is stdout. -fexceptions Enable exception handling. You may need to enable this option when compiling C code that needs to interoperate properly with exception handlers written in C++. -o file Place the output in file. -S Stop after compilation proper (i.e., before invoking the assembler). The default output file extension is .s. -v Print the commands executed during each stage of compilation. -x You can specify the input language explicitly with the -x option: -x language Specify explicitly the language for the following input files (rather than letting the compiler choose a default based on the file name suffix). This option applies to all following input files until the next -x option. The following values are supported by the compiler: c c++ c-header cpp-output assembler assembler-with-cpp -x none Turn off any specification of a language, so that subsequent files are handled according to their file name suffixes. This is the default behavior but is needed if another -x option has been used. For example: xc32-gcc -x assembler foo.asm bar.asm -x none main.c mabonga.s Without the -x none, the compiler assumes all the input files are for the assembler. --help DS51686E-page 62 Print a description of the command line options. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Compiler Command Line Driver 3.9.3 Options for Controlling the C Dialect The following options define the kind of C dialect used by the compiler. TABLE 3-6: C DIALECT CONTROL OPTIONS Option Definition -ansi Support all (and only) ANSI-standard C programs. -aux-info filename Output to the given filename prototyped declarations for all functions declared and/or defined in a translation unit, including those in header files. This option is silently ignored in any language other than C. Besides declarations, the file indicates, in comments, the origin of each declaration (source file and line), whether the declaration was implicit, prototyped or unprototyped (I, N for new or O for old, respectively, in the first character after the line number and the colon), and whether it came from a declaration or a definition (C or F, respectively, in the following character). In the case of function definitions, a K&R-style list of arguments followed by their declarations is also provided, inside comments, after the declaration. -fcheck-new / -fno-check-new (default) Check that the pointer returned by operator new is non-null. -fenforce-eh-specs (default) / -fno-enforce-eh-specs Generate/Do not generate code to check for violation of exception specifications at runtime. The -fno-enforce-eh-specs option violates the C++ standard, but may be useful for reducing code size in production builds, much like defining NDEBUG'. This does not give user code permission to throw exceptions in violation of the exception specifications; the compiler will still optimize based on the specifications, so throwing an unexpected exception will result in undefined behavior. -ffreestanding Assert that compilation takes place in a freestanding environment. This implies -fno-builtin. A freestanding environment is one in which the standard library may not exist, and program start-up may not necessarily be at main. The most obvious example is an OS kernel. This is equivalent to -fno-hosted. -fno-asm Do not recognize asm, inline or typeof as a keyword, so that code can use these words as identifiers. You can use the keywords __asm__, __inline__ and __typeof__ instead. -ansi implies -fno-asm. -fno-builtin -fno-builtin-function Don't recognize built-in functions that do not begin with __builtin_ as prefix. -fno-exceptions Disable C++ exception handling. This option disables the generation of extra code needed to propagate exceptions. -fno-rtti Enable/Disable runtime type-identification features. The -fno-rtti option disables generation of information about every class with virtual functions for use by the C++ runtime type identification features ('dynamic_cast' and 'typeid'). If you don't use those parts of the language, you can save some space by using this flag. Note that exception handling uses the same information, but it will generate it as needed. The 'dynamic_cast' operator can still be used for casts that do not require runtime type information, i.e. casts to void * or to unambiguous base classes. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 63 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide TABLE 3-6: C DIALECT CONTROL OPTIONS (CONTINUED) Option Definition -fsigned-char Let the type char be signed, like signed char. (This is the default.) -fsigned-bitfields -funsigned-bitfields -fno-signed-bitfields -fno-unsigned-bitfields These options control whether a bit field is signed or unsigned, when the declaration does not use either signed or unsigned. By default, such a bit field is signed, unless -traditional is used, in which case bit fields are always unsigned. -funsigned-char Let the type char be unsigned, like unsigned char. -fwritable-strings Store strings in the writable data segment and do not make them unique. 3.9.4 Options for Controlling the C++ Dialect The following options define the kind of C++ dialect used by the compiler. TABLE 3-7: C++ DIALECT CONTROL OPTIONS Option DS51686E-page 64 Definition -ansi Support all (and only) ANSI-standard C++ programs. -aux-info filename Output to the given filename prototyped declarations for all functions declared and/or defined in a translation unit, including those in header files. This option is silently ignored in any language other than C++. Besides declarations, the file indicates, in comments, the origin of each declaration (source file and line), whether the declaration was implicit, prototyped or unprototyped (I, N for new or O for old, respectively, in the first character after the line number and the colon), and whether it came from a declaration or a definition (C or F, respectively, in the following character). In the case of function definitions, a K&R-style list of arguments followed by their declarations is also provided, inside comments, after the declaration. -ffreestanding Assert that compilation takes place in a freestanding environment. This implies -fno-builtin. A freestanding environment is one in which the standard library may not exist, and program start-up may not necessarily be at main. The most obvious example is an OS kernel. This is equivalent to -fno-hosted. -fno-asm Do not recognize asm, inline or typeof as a keyword, so that code can use these words as identifiers. You can use the keywords __asm__, __inline__ and __typeof__ instead. -ansi implies -fno-asm. -fno-builtin -fno-builtin-function Don't recognize built-in functions that do not begin with __builtin_ as prefix. -fsigned-char Let the type char be signed, like signed char. (This is the default.) -fsigned-bitfields -funsigned-bitfields -fno-signed-bitfields -fno-unsigned-bitfields These options control whether a bit field is signed or unsigned, when the declaration does not use either signed or unsigned. By default, such a bit field is signed, unless -traditional is used, in which case bit fields are always unsigned. -funsigned-char Let the type char be unsigned, like unsigned char. -fwritable-strings Store strings in the writable data segment and do not make them unique. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Compiler Command Line Driver 3.9.5 Options for Controlling Warnings and Errors Warnings are diagnostic messages that report constructions that are not inherently erroneous, but that are risky or suggest there may have been an error. You can request many specific warnings with options beginning -W; for example, -Wimplicit, to request warnings on implicit declarations. Each of these specific warning options also has a negative form beginning -Wno- to turn off warnings; for example, -Wno-implicit. This manual lists only one of the two forms, whichever is not the default. The following options control the amount and kinds of warnings produced by the compiler. TABLE 3-8: WARNING AND ERROR OPTIONS IMPLIED BY ALL WARNINGS Option Definition -fsyntax-only Check the code for syntax, but don't do anything beyond that. -pedantic Issue all the warnings demanded by strict ANSI C. Reject all programs that use forbidden extensions. -pedantic-errors Like -pedantic, except that errors are produced rather than warnings. -w Inhibit all warning messages. -Wall This enables all the warnings about constructions that some users consider questionable, and that are easy to avoid (or modify to prevent the warning), even in conjunction with macros. Note that some warning flags are not implied by -Wall. Some of them warn about constructions that users generally do not consider questionable, but which occasionally you might wish to check for; others warn about constructions that are necessary or hard to avoid in some cases, and there is no simple way to modify the code to suppress the warning. Some of them are enabled by -Wextra but many of them must be enabled individually. -Waddress Warn about suspicious uses of memory addresses. These include using the address of a function in a conditional expression, such as void func(void); if (func), and comparisons against the memory address of a string literal, such as if (x == "abc"). Such uses typically indicate a programmer error: the address of a function always evaluates to true, so their use in a conditional usually indicates that the programmer forgot the parentheses in a function call; and comparisons against string literals result in unspecified behavior and are not portable in C, so they usually indicate that the programmer intended to use strcmp. -Wchar-subscripts Warn if an array subscript has type char. -Wcomment Warn whenever a comment-start sequence /* appears in a /* comment, or whenever a Backslash-Newline appears in a // comment. -Wdiv-by-zero Warn about compile-time integer division by zero. To inhibit the warning messages, use -Wno-div-by-zero. Floating-point division by zero is not warned about, as it can be a legitimate way of obtaining infinities and NaNs. (This is the default.) -Wformat Check calls to printf and scanf, etc., to make sure that the arguments supplied have types appropriate to the format string specified. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 65 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide TABLE 3-8: WARNING AND ERROR OPTIONS IMPLIED BY ALL WARNINGS Option -Wimplicit Definition Equivalent to specifying both -Wimplicit-int and -Wimplicit-function-declaration. -Wimplicit-function- Give a warning whenever a function is used before being declaration declared. DS51686E-page 66 -Wimplicit-int Warn when a declaration does not specify a type. -Wmain Warn if the type of main is suspicious. main should be a function with external linkage, returning int, taking either zero, two or three arguments of appropriate types. -Wmissing-braces Warn if an aggregate or union initializer is not fully bracketed. In the following example, the initializer for a is not fully bracketed, but that for b is fully bracketed. int a[2][2] = { 0, 1, 2, 3 }; int b[2][2] = { { 0, 1 }, { 2, 3 } }; -Wno-multichar Warn if a multi-character character constant is used. Usually, such constants are typographical errors. Since they have implementation-defined values, they should not be used in portable code. The following example illustrates the use of a multi-character character constant: char xx(void) { return('xx'); } -Wparentheses Warn if parentheses are omitted in certain contexts, such as when there is an assignment in a context where a truth value is expected, or when operators are nested whose precedence people often find confusing. -Wreturn-type Warn whenever a function is defined with a return-type that defaults to int. Also warn about any return statement with no return-value in a function whose return-type is not void. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Compiler Command Line Driver TABLE 3-8: WARNING AND ERROR OPTIONS IMPLIED BY ALL WARNINGS Option Definition -Wsequence-point Warn about code that may have undefined semantics because of violations of sequence point rules in the C standard. The C standard defines the order in which expressions in a C program are evaluated in terms of sequence points, which represent a partial ordering between the execution of parts of the program: those executed before the sequence point and those executed after it. These occur after the evaluation of a full expression (one which is not part of a larger expression), after the evaluation of the first operand of a &&, ||, ? : or , (comma) operator, before a function is called (but after the evaluation of its arguments and the expression denoting the called function), and in certain other places. Other than as expressed by the sequence point rules, the order of evaluation of subexpressions of an expression is not specified. All these rules describe only a partial order rather than a total order, since, for example, if two functions are called within one expression with no sequence point between them, the order in which the functions are called is not specified. However, the standards committee has ruled that function calls do not overlap. It is not specified when between sequence points modifications to the values of objects take effect. Programs whose behavior depends on this have undefined behavior. The C standard specifies that "Between the previous and next sequence point, an object shall have its stored value modified, at most once, by the evaluation of an expression. Furthermore, the prior value shall be read only to determine the value to be stored." If a program breaks these rules, the results on any particular implementation are entirely unpredictable. Examples of code with undefined behavior are a = a++;, a[n] = b[n++] and a[i++] = i;. Some more complicated cases are not diagnosed by this option, and it may give an occasional false positive result, but in general it has been found fairly effective at detecting this sort of problem in programs. -Wswitch Warn whenever a switch statement has an index of enumeral type and lacks a case for one or more of the named codes of that enumeration. (The presence of a default label prevents this warning.) case labels outside the enumeration range also provoke warnings when this option is used. -Wsystem-headers Print warning messages for constructs found in system header files. Warnings from system headers are normally suppressed on the assumption that they usually do not indicate real problems and would only make the compiler output harder to read. Using this command line option tells the compiler to emit warnings from system headers as if they occurred in user code. However, note that using -Wall in conjunction with this option does not warn about unknown pragmas in system headers. For that, -Wunknown-pragmas must also be used. -Wtrigraphs Warn if any trigraphs are encountered (assuming they are enabled). 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 67 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide TABLE 3-8: WARNING AND ERROR OPTIONS IMPLIED BY ALL WARNINGS Option Definition -Wuninitialized Warn if an automatic variable is used without first being initialized. These warnings are possible only when optimization is enabled, because they require data flow information that is computed only when optimizing. These warnings occur only for variables that are candidates for register allocation. Therefore, they do not occur for a variable that is declared volatile, or whose address is taken, or whose size is other than 1, 2, 4 or 8 bytes. Also, they do not occur for structures, unions or arrays, even when they are in registers. Note that there may be no warning about a variable that is used only to compute a value that itself is never used, because such computations may be deleted by data flow analysis before the warnings are printed. -Wunknown-pragmas Warn when a #pragma directive is encountered which is not understood by the compiler. If this command line option is used, warnings will even be issued for unknown pragmas in system header files. This is not the case if the warnings were only enabled by the -Wall command line option. -Wunused Warn whenever a variable is unused aside from its declaration, whenever a function is declared static but never defined, whenever a label is declared but not used, and whenever a statement computes a result that is explicitly not used. In order to get a warning about an unused function parameter, both -W and -Wunused must be specified. Casting an expression to void suppresses this warning for an expression. Similarly, the unused attribute suppresses this warning for unused variables, parameters and labels. -Wunused-function Warn whenever a static function is declared but not defined or a non-inline static function is unused. -Wunused-label Warn whenever a label is declared but not used. To suppress this warning, use the unused attribute. -Wunused-parameter Warn whenever a function parameter is unused aside from its declaration. To suppress this warning, use the unused attribute. -Wunused-variable Warn whenever a local variable or non-constant static variable is unused aside from its declaration. To suppress this warning, use the unused attribute. -Wunused-value Warn whenever a statement computes a result that is explicitly not used. To suppress this warning, cast the expression to void. The following -W options are not implied by -Wall. Some of them warn about constructions that users generally do not consider questionable, but which you might occasionally wish to check for. Others warn about constructions that are necessary or hard to avoid in some cases, and there is no simple way to modify the code to suppress the warning. DS51686E-page 68 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Compiler Command Line Driver TABLE 3-9: WARNING AND ERROR OPTIONS NOT IMPLIED BY ALL WARNINGS Option Definition -W Print extra warning messages for these events: * A nonvolatile automatic variable might be changed by a call to longjmp. These warnings are possible only in optimizing compilation. The compiler sees only the calls to setjmp. It cannot know where longjmp will be called. In fact, a signal handler could call it at any point in the code. As a result, a warning may be generated even when there is in fact no problem, because longjmp cannot in fact be called at the place that would cause a problem. * A function could exit both via return value; and return;. Completing the function body without passing any return statement is treated as return;. * An expression-statement or the left-hand side of a comma expression contains no side effects. To suppress the warning, cast the unused expression to void. For example, an expression such as x[i,j] causes a warning, but x[(void)i,j] does not. * An unsigned value is compared against zero with < or <=. * A comparison like x<=y<=z appears, This is equivalent to (x<=y ? 1 : 0) <= z, which is a different interpretation from that of ordinary mathematical notation. * Storage-class specifiers like static are not the first things in a declaration. According to the C Standard, this usage is obsolescent. * If -Wall or -Wunused is also specified, warn about unused arguments. * A comparison between signed and unsigned values could produce an incorrect result when the signed value is converted to unsigned. (But don't warn if -Wno-sign-compare is also specified.) * An aggregate has a partly bracketed initializer. For example, the following code would evoke such a warning, because braces are missing around the initializer for x.h: struct s { int f, g; }; struct t { struct s h; int i; }; struct t x = { 1, 2, 3 }; * An aggregate has an initializer that does not initialize all members. For example, the following code would cause such a warning, because x.h would be implicitly initialized to zero: struct s { int f, g, h; }; struct s x = { 3, 4 }; -Waggregate-return Warn if any functions that return structures or unions are defined or called. -Wbad-function-cast Warn whenever a function call is cast to a non-matching type. For example, warn if int foof() is cast to anything *. -Wcast-align Warn whenever a pointer is cast, such that the required alignment of the target is increased. For example, warn if a char * is cast to an int *. -Wcast-qual Warn whenever a pointer is cast, so as to remove a type qualifier from the target type. For example, warn if a const char * is cast to an ordinary char *. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 69 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide TABLE 3-9: WARNING AND ERROR OPTIONS NOT IMPLIED BY ALL WARNINGS (CONTINUED) Option Definition -Wconversion Warn if a prototype causes a type conversion that is different from what would happen to the same argument in the absence of a prototype. This includes conversions of fixed point to floating and vice versa, and conversions changing the width or signedness of a fixed point argument, except when the same as the default promotion. Also, warn if a negative integer constant expression is implicitly converted to an unsigned type. For example, warn about the assignment x = -1 if x is unsigned. But do not warn about explicit casts like (unsigned) -1. -Werror Make all warnings into errors. -Winline Warn if a function can not be inlined, and either it was declared as inline, or else the -finline-functions option was given. -Wlarger-than-len Warn whenever an object of larger than len bytes is defined. -Wlong-long -Wno-long-long Warn if long long type is used. This is default. To inhibit the warning messages, use -Wno-long-long. Flags -Wlong-long and -Wno-long-long are taken into account only when -pedantic flag is used. -Wmissing-declarations Warn if a global function is defined without a previous declaration. Do so even if the definition itself provides a prototype. DS51686E-page 70 -Wmissingformat-attribute If -Wformat is enabled, also warn about functions that might be candidates for format attributes. Note these are only possible candidates, not absolute ones. This option has no effect unless -Wformat is enabled. -Wmissing-noreturn Warn about functions that might be candidates for attribute noreturn. These are only possible candidates, not absolute ones. Care should be taken to manually verify functions. In fact, do not ever return before adding the noreturn attribute, otherwise subtle code generation bugs could be introduced. -Wmissing-prototypes Warn if a global function is defined without a previous prototype declaration. This warning is issued even if the definition itself provides a prototype. (This option can be used to detect global functions that are not declared in header files.) -Wnested-externs Warn if an extern declaration is encountered within a function. -Wno-deprecateddeclarations Do not warn about uses of functions, variables and types marked as deprecated by using the deprecated attribute. -Wpadded Warn if padding is included in a structure, either to align an element of the structure or to align the whole structure. -Wpointer-arith Warn about anything that depends on the size of a function type or of void. The compiler assigns these types a size of 1, for convenience in calculations with void * pointers and pointers to functions. -Wredundant-decls Warn if anything is declared more than once in the same scope, even in cases where multiple declaration is valid and changes nothing. -Wshadow Warn whenever a local variable shadows another local variable. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Compiler Command Line Driver TABLE 3-9: WARNING AND ERROR OPTIONS NOT IMPLIED BY ALL WARNINGS (CONTINUED) Option Definition -Wsign-compare -Wno-sign-compare Warn when a comparison between signed and unsigned values could produce an incorrect result when the signed value is converted to unsigned. This warning is also enabled by -W. To get the other warnings of -W without this warning, use -W -Wno-sign-compare. -Wstrict-prototypes Warn if a function is declared or defined without specifying the argument types. (An old-style function definition is permitted without a warning if preceded by a declaration which specifies the argument types.) -Wtraditional Warn about certain constructs that behave differently in traditional and ANSI C. * Macro arguments occurring within string constants in the macro body. These would substitute the argument in traditional C, but are part of the constant in ANSI C. * A function declared external in one block and then used after the end of the block. * A switch statement has an operand of type long. * A nonstatic function declaration follows a static one. This construct is not accepted by some traditional C compilers. -Wundef Warn if an undefined identifier is evaluated in an #if directive. -Wunreachable-code Warn if the compiler detects that code will never be executed. It is possible for this option to produce a warning even though there are circumstances under which part of the affected line can be executed, so care should be taken when removing apparently unreachable code. For instance, when a function is inlined, a warning may mean that the line is unreachable in only one inlined copy of the function. -Wwrite-strings Give string constants the type const char[length] so that copying the address of one into a non-const char * pointer gets a warning. At compile time, these warnings help you find code that you can try to write into a string constant, but only if you have been very careful about using const in declarations and prototypes. Otherwise, it's just a nuisance, which is why -Wall does not request these warnings. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 71 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 3.9.6 Options for Debugging The following options are used for debugging. TABLE 3-10: Option DEBUGGING OPTIONS Definition -g Produce debugging information. The compiler supports the use of -g with -O making it possible to debug optimized code. The shortcuts taken by optimized code may occasionally produce surprising results: * Some declared variables may not exist at all * Flow of control may briefly move unexpectedly * Some statements may not be executed because they compute constant results or their values were already at hand * Some statements may execute in different places because they were moved out of loops Nevertheless it proves possible to debug optimized output. This makes it reasonable to use the optimizer for programs that might have bugs. -Q Makes the compiler print out each function name as it is compiled, and print some statistics about each pass when it finishes. -save-temps Don't delete intermediate files. Place them in the current directory and -save-temps=cwd name them based on the source file. Thus, compiling foo.c with -c -save-temps would produce the following files: foo.i (preprocessed file) foo.s (assembly language file) foo.o (object file) -save-temps=obj Similar to -save-temps=cwd, but if the -o option is specified, the temporary files are based on the object file. If the -o option is not specified, the -save-temps=obj switch behaves like -save-temps. For example: xc32-gcc -save-temps=obj -c foo.c xc32-gcc -save-temps=obj -c bar.c -o dir/xbar.o xc32-gcc -save-temps=obj foobar.c -o dir2/yfoobar would create foo.i, foo.s, dir/xbar.i, dir/xbar.s, dir2/yfoobar.i, dir2/yfoobar.s, and dir2/yfoobar.o. 3.9.7 Options for Controlling Optimization The following options control compiler optimizations. TABLE 3-11: DS51686E-page 72 GENERAL OPTIMIZATION OPTIONS Option Definition -O0 Do not optimize. (This is the default.) Without -O, the compiler's goal is to reduce the cost of compilation and to make debugging produce the expected results. Statements are independent: if you stop the program with a breakpoint between statements, you can then assign a new value to any variable or change the program counter to any other statement in the function and get exactly the results you would expect from the source code. The compiler only allocates variables declared register in registers. -O -O1 Optimization level 1. Optimizing compilation takes somewhat longer, and a lot more host memory for a large function. With -O, the compiler tries to reduce code size and execution time. When -O is specified, the compiler turns on -fthread-jumps and -fdefer-pop. The compiler turns on -fomit-frame-pointer. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Compiler Command Line Driver TABLE 3-11: GENERAL OPTIMIZATION OPTIONS (CONTINUED) Option Definition -O2 Optimization level 2. The compiler performs nearly all supported optimizations that do not involve a space-speed trade-off. -O2 turns on all optional optimizations except for loop unrolling (-funroll-loops), function inlining (-finline-functions), and strict aliasing optimizations (-fstrict-aliasing). It also turns on force copy of memory operands (-fforce-mem) and Frame Pointer elimination (-fomit-frame-pointer). As compared to -O, this option increases both compilation time and the performance of the generated code. -O3 Optimization level 3. -O3 turns on all optimizations specified by -O2 and also turns on the inline-functions option. -Os Optimize for size. -Os enables all -O2 optimizations that do not typically increase code size. It also performs further optimizations designed to reduce code size. The following options control specific optimizations. The -O2 option turns on all of these optimizations except -funroll-loops, -funroll-all-loops and -fstrict-aliasing. You can use the following flags in the rare cases when "fine-tuning" of optimizations to be performed is desired. TABLE 3-12: SPECIFIC OPTIMIZATION OPTIONS Option Definition -falign-functions Align the start of functions to the next power-of-two greater than n, -falign-functions= skipping up to n bytes. For instance, -falign-functions=32 n aligns functions to the next 32-byte boundary, but -falign-functions=24 would align to the next 32-byte boundary only if this can be done by skipping 23 bytes or less. -fno-align-functions and -falign-functions=1 are equivalent and mean that functions are not aligned. The assembler only supports this flag when n is a power of two, so n is rounded up. If n is not specified, use a machine-dependent default. -falign-labels -falign-labels=n Align all branch targets to a power-of-two boundary, skipping up to n bytes like -falign-functions. This option can easily make code slower, because it must insert dummy operations for when the branch target is reached in the usual flow of the code. If -falign-loops or -falign-jumps are applicable and are greater than this value, then their values are used instead. If n is not specified, use a machine-dependent default which is very likely to be 1, meaning no alignment. -falign-loops -falign-loops=n Align loops to a power-of-two boundary, skipping up to n bytes like -falign-functions. The hope is that the loop is executed many times, which makes up for any execution of the dummy operations. If n is not specified, use a machine-dependent default. -fcaller-saves Enable values to be allocated in registers that are clobbered by function calls, by emitting extra instructions to save and restore the registers around such calls. Such allocation is done only when it seems to result in better code than would otherwise be produced. -fcse-follow-jumps In common subexpression elimination, scan through jump instructions when the target of the jump is not reached by any other path. For example, when CSE encounters an if statement with an else clause, CSE follows the jump when the condition tested is false. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 73 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide TABLE 3-12: SPECIFIC OPTIMIZATION OPTIONS (CONTINUED) Option Definition -fcse-skip-blocks This is similar to -fcse-follow-jumps, but causes CSE to follow jumps which conditionally skip over blocks. When CSE encounters a simple if statement with no else clause, -fcse-skip-blocks causes CSE to follow the jump around the body of the if. -fexpensiveoptimizations Perform a number of minor optimizations that are relatively expensive. -ffunction-section Place each function or data item into its own section in the output s file. The name of the function or the name of the data item -fdata-sections determines the section's name in the output file. Only use these options when there are significant benefits for doing so. When you specify these options, the assembler and linker may create larger object and executable files and is also slower. -fgcse Perform a global common subexpression elimination pass. This pass also performs global constant and copy propagation. -fgcse-lm When -fgcse-lm is enabled, global common subexpression elimination attempts to move loads which are only killed by stores into themselves. This allows a loop containing a load/store sequence to change to a load outside the loop, and a copy/store within the loop. -fgcse-sm When -fgcse-sm is enabled, a store motion pass is run after global common subexpression elimination. This pass attempts to move stores out of loops. When used in conjunction with -fgcse-lm, loops containing a load/store sequence can change to a load before the loop and a store after the loop. -fmove-all-movable Forces all invariant computations in loops to be moved outside the s loop. -fno-defer-pop Always pop the arguments to each function call as soon as that function returns. The compiler normally lets arguments accumulate on the stack for several function calls and pops them all at once. -fno-peephole -fno-peephole2 Disable machine specific peephole optimizations. Peephole optimizations occur at various points during the compilation. -fno-peephole disables peephole optimization on machine instructions, while -fno-peephole2 disables high level peephole optimizations. To disable peephole entirely, use both options. -foptimizeregister-move -fregmove Attempt to reassign register numbers in move instructions and as operands of other simple instructions in order to maximize the amount of register tying. -fregmove and -foptimize-register-moves are the same optimization. -freduce-all-givs Forces all general-induction variables in loops to be strength reduced. These options may generate better or worse code. Results are highly dependent on the structure of loops within the source code. -frename-registers Attempt to avoid false dependencies in scheduled code by making use of registers left over after register allocation. This optimization most benefits processors with lots of registers. It can, however, make debugging impossible, since variables no longer stay in a "home register". -frerun-cse-after- Rerun common subexpression elimination after loop optimizations loop has been performed. -frerun-loop-opt DS51686E-page 74 Run the loop optimizer twice. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Compiler Command Line Driver TABLE 3-12: SPECIFIC OPTIMIZATION OPTIONS (CONTINUED) Option Definition -fschedule-insns Attempt to reorder instructions to eliminate instruction stalls due to required data being unavailable. -fschedule-insns2 Similar to -fschedule-insns, but requests an additional pass of instruction scheduling after register allocation has been done. -fstrength-reduce Perform the optimizations of loop strength reduction and elimination of iteration variables. -fstrict-aliasing Allows the compiler to assume the strictest aliasing rules applicable to the language being compiled. For C, this activates optimizations based on the type of expressions. In particular, an object of one type is assumed never to reside at the same address as an object of a different type, unless the types are almost the same. For example, an unsigned int can alias an int, but not a void* or a double. A character type may alias any other type. Pay special attention to code like this: union a_union { int i; double d; }; int f() { union a_union t; t.d = 3.0; return t.i; } The practice of reading from a different union member than the one most recently written to (called "type-punning") is common. Even with -fstrict-aliasing, type-punning is allowed, provided the memory is accessed through the union type. So, the code above works as expected. However, this code might not: int f() { a_union t; int* ip; t.d = 3.0; ip = &t.i; return *ip; } -fthread-jumps Perform optimizations where a check is made to see if a jump branches to a location where another comparison subsumed by the first is found. If so, the first branch is redirected to either the destination of the second branch or a point immediately following it, depending on whether the condition is known to be true or false. -funroll-loops Perform the optimization of loop unrolling. This is only done for loops whose number of iterations can be determined at compile time or run time. -funroll-loops implies both -fstrength-reduce and -frerun-cse-after-loop. -funroll-all-loops Perform the optimization of loop unrolling. This is done for all loops and usually makes programs run more slowly. -funroll-all-loops implies -fstrength-reduce, as well as -frerun-cse-after-loop. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 75 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide Options of the form -fflag specify machine-independent flags. Most flags have both positive and negative forms. The negative form of -ffoo would be -fno-foo. In the table below, only one of the forms is listed (the one that is not the default.) TABLE 3-13: MACHINE-INDEPENDENT OPTIMIZATION OPTIONS Option Definition -fforce-mem Force memory operands to be copied into registers before doing arithmetic on them. This produces better code by making all memory references potential common subexpressions. When they are not common subexpressions, instruction combination should eliminate the separate register load. The -O2 option turns on this option. -finline-functions Integrate all simple functions into their callers. The compiler heuristically decides which functions are simple enough to be worth integrating in this way. If all calls to a given function are integrated, and the function is declared static, then the function is normally not output as assembler code in its own right. -finline-limit=n By default, the compiler limits the size of functions that can be inlined. This flag allows the control of this limit for functions that are explicitly marked as inline (i.e., marked with the inline keyword). n is the size of functions that can be inlined in number of pseudo instructions (not counting parameter handling). The default value of n is 10000. Increasing this value can result in more inlined code at the cost of compilation time and memory consumption. Decreasing usually makes the compilation faster and less code is inlined (which presumably means slower programs). This option is particularly useful for programs that use inlining. Note: Pseudo instruction represents, in this particular context, an abstract measurement of function's size. In no way does it represent a count of assembly instructions and as such, its exact meaning might change from one release of the compiler to an another. DS51686E-page 76 -fkeep-inline-functions Even if all calls to a given function are integrated, and the function is declared static, output a separate run time callable version of the function. This switch does not affect extern inline functions. -fkeep-static-consts Emit variables are declared static const when optimization isn't turned on, even if the variables are not referenced. The compiler enables this option by default. If you want to force the compiler to check if the variable was referenced, regardless of whether or not optimization is turned on, use the -fno-keep-static-consts option. -fno-function-cse Do not put function addresses in registers. Make each instruction that calls a constant function contain the function's address explicitly. This option results in less efficient code, but some strange hacks that alter the assembler output may be confused by the optimizations performed when this option is not used. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Compiler Command Line Driver TABLE 3-13: MACHINE-INDEPENDENT OPTIMIZATION OPTIONS Option Definition -fno-inline Do not pay attention to the inline keyword. Normally this option is used to keep the compiler from expanding any functions inline. If optimization is not enabled, no functions can be expanded inline. -fomit-frame-pointer Do not keep the Frame Pointer in a register for functions that don't need one. This avoids the instructions to save, set up and restore Frame Pointers. It also makes an extra register available in many functions. -foptimize-sibling-calls Optimize sibling and tail recursive calls. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 77 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 3.9.8 Options for Controlling the Preprocessor The following options control the compiler preprocessor. TABLE 3-14: PREPROCESSOR OPTIONS Option Definition -C Tell the preprocessor not to discard comments. Used with the -E option. -dD Tell the preprocessor to not remove macro definitions into the output, in their proper sequence. -Dmacro Define macro macro with string 1 as its definition. -Dmacro=defn Define macro macro as defn. All instances of -D on the command line are processed before any -U options. -dM Tell the preprocessor to output only a list of the macro definitions that are in effect at the end of preprocessing. Used with the -E option. -dN Like -dD except that the macro arguments and contents are omitted. Only #define name is included in the output. -fno-show-column Do not print column numbers in diagnostics. This may be necessary if diagnostics are being scanned by a program that does not understand the column numbers, such as DejaGnu. DS51686E-page 78 -H Print the name of each header file used, in addition to other normal activities. -I- Any directories you specify with -I options before the -I- options are searched only for the case of #include "file". They are not searched for #include <file>. If additional directories are specified with -I options after the -I-, these directories are searched for all #include directives. (Ordinarily all -I directories are used this way.) In addition, the -I- option inhibits the use of the current directory (where the current input file came from) as the first search directory for #include "file". There is no way to override this effect of -I-. With -I. you can specify searching the directory that was current when the compiler was invoked. That is not exactly the same as what the preprocessor does by default, but it is often satisfactory. -I- does not inhibit the use of the standard system directories for header files. Thus, -I- and -nostdinc are independent. -Idir Add the directory dir to the head of the list of directories to be searched for header files. This can be used to override a system header file, substituting your own version, since these directories are searched before the system header file directories. If you use more than one -I option, the directories are scanned in left-to-right order. The standard system directories come after. -idirafter dir Add the directory dir to the second include path. The directories on the second include path are searched when a header file is not found in any of the directories in the main include path (the one that -I adds to). -imacros file Process file as input, discarding the resulting output, before processing the regular input file. Because the output generated from the file is discarded, the only effect of -imacros file is to make the macros defined in file available for use in the main input. Any -D and -U options on the command line are always processed before -imacros file, regardless of the order in which they are written. All the -include and -imacros options are processed in the order in which they are written. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Compiler Command Line Driver TABLE 3-14: PREPROCESSOR OPTIONS (CONTINUED) Option Definition -include file Process file as input before processing the regular input file. In effect, the contents of file are compiled first. Any -D and -U options on the command line are always processed before -include file, regardless of the order in which they are written. All the -include and -imacros options are processed in the order in which they are written. -M Tell the preprocessor to output a rule suitable for make describing the dependencies of each object file. For each source file, the preprocessor outputs one make-rule whose target is the object file name for that source file and whose dependencies are all the #include header files it uses. This rule may be a single line or may be continued with \-newline if it is long. The list of rules is printed on standard output instead of the preprocessed C program. -M implies -E (see Section 3.9.2 "Options for Controlling the Kind of Output"). -MD Like -M but the dependency information is written to a file and compilation continues. The file containing the dependency information is given the same name as the source file with a .d extension. -MF file When used with -M or -MM, specifies a file in which to write the dependencies. If no -MF switch is given, the preprocessor sends the rules to the same place it would have sent preprocessed output. When used with the driver options, -MD or -MMD, -MF, overrides the default dependency output file. -MG Treat missing header files as generated files and assume they live in the same directory as the source file. If -MG is specified, then either -M or -MM must also be specified. -MG is not supported with -MD or -MMD. -MM Like -M but the output mentions only the user header files included with #include "file". System header files included with #include <file> are omitted. -MMD Like -MD except mention only user header files, not system header files. -MP This option instructs CPP to add a phony target for each dependency other than the main file, causing each to depend on nothing. These dummy rules work around errors make gives if you remove header files without updating the make-file to match. This is typical output: test.o: test.c test.h test.h: -MQ Same as -MT, but it quotes any characters which are special to make. -MQ '$(objpfx)foo.o' gives $$(objpfx)foo.o: foo.c The default target is automatically quoted, as if it were given with -MQ. -MT target Change the target of the rule emitted by dependency generation. By default, CPP takes the name of the main input file, including any path, deletes any file suffix such as .c, and appends the platform's usual object suffix. The result is the target. An -MT option sets the target to be exactly the string you specify. If you want multiple targets, you can specify them as a single argument to -MT, or use multiple -MT options. For example: -MT '$(objpfx)foo.o' might give $(objpfx)foo.o: foo.c 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 79 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide TABLE 3-14: Option DS51686E-page 80 PREPROCESSOR OPTIONS (CONTINUED) Definition -nostdinc Do not search the standard system directories for header files. Only the directories you have specified with -I options (and the current directory, if appropriate) are searched. (See Section 3.9.11 "Options for Directory Search") for information on -I. By using both -nostdinc and -I-, the include-file search path can be limited to only those directories explicitly specified. -P Tell the preprocessor not to generate #line directives. Used with the -E option (see Section 3.9.2 "Options for Controlling the Kind of Output"). -trigraphs Support ANSI C trigraphs. The -ansi option also has this effect. -Umacro Undefine macro macro. -U options are evaluated after all -D options, but before any -include and -imacros options. -undef Do not predefine any nonstandard macros (including architecture flags). 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Compiler Command Line Driver 3.9.9 Options for Assembling The following options control assembler operations. TABLE 3-15: ASSEMBLY OPTIONS Option Definition Pass option as an option to the assembler. If option contains commas, it is split into multiple options at the commas. -Wa,option 3.9.10 Options for Linking If any of the options -c, -S or -E are used, the linker is not run and object file names should not be used as arguments. TABLE 3-16: LINKING OPTIONS Option Definition -fill=<options A memory-fill option to be passed on to the linker. -Ldir Add directory dir to the list of directories to be searched for libraries specified by the command line option -l. -llibrary Search the library named library when linking. The linker searches a standard list of directories for the library, which is actually a file named liblibrary.a. The linker then uses this file as if it had been specified precisely by name. It makes a difference where in the command you write this option. The linker processes libraries and object files in the order they are specified. Thus, foo.o -lz bar.o searches library z after file foo.o but before bar.o. If bar.o refers to functions in libz.a, those functions may not be loaded. The directories searched include several standard system directories, plus any that you specify with -L. Normally the files found this way are library files (archive files whose members are object files). The linker handles an archive file by scanning through it for members which define symbols that have been referenced but not defined yet. But if the file found is an ordinary object file, it is linked in the usual fashion. The only difference between using an -l option (e.g., -lmylib) and specifying a file name (e.g., libmylib.a) is that -l searches several directories, as specified. By default the linker is directed to search: <install-path>\lib for libraries specified with the -l option. For a compiler installed into the default location, this would be: Program Files\Microchip\mplab32\<version>\lib This behavior can be overridden using the environment variables. See also the INPUT and OPTIONAL linker script directives. -nodefaultlibs Do not use the standard system libraries when linking. Only the libraries you specify are passed to the linker. The compiler may generate calls to memcmp, memset and memcpy. These entries are usually resolved by entries in the standard compiler libraries. These entry points should be supplied through some other mechanism when this option is specified. -nostdlib Do not use the standard system start-up files or libraries when linking. No start-up files and only the libraries you specify are passed to the linker. The compiler may generate calls to memcmp, memset and memcpy. These entries are usually resolved by entries in standard compiler libraries. These entry points should be supplied through some other mechanism when this option is specified. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 81 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide TABLE 3-16: LINKING OPTIONS (CONTINUED) Option Definition -s Remove all symbol table and relocation information from the executable. -u symbol Pretend symbol is undefined to force linking of library modules to define the symbol. It is legitimate to use -u multiple times with different symbols to force loading of additional library modules. -Wl,option Pass option as an option to the linker. If option contains commas, it is split into multiple options at the commas. -Xlinker option Pass option as an option to the linker. You can use this to supply system-specific linker options that the compiler does not know how to recognize. 3.9.11 Options for Directory Search The following options specify to the compiler where to find directories and files to search. TABLE 3-17: Option DS51686E-page 82 DIRECTORY SEARCH OPTIONS Definition -Bprefix This option specifies where to find the executables, libraries, include files and data files of the compiler itself. The compiler driver program runs one or more of the sub-programs xc32-cpp, xc32-as and xc32-ld. It tries prefix as a prefix for each program it tries to run. For each sub-program to be run, the compiler driver first tries the -B prefix, if any. Lastly, the driver searches the current PATH environment variable for the subprogram. -B prefixes that effectively specify directory names also apply to libraries in the linker, because the compiler translates these options into -L options for the linker. They also apply to include files in the preprocessor, because the compiler translates these options into -isystem options for the preprocessor. In this case, the compiler appends include to the prefix. -specs=file Process file after the compiler reads in the standard specs file, in order to override the defaults that the xc32-gcc driver program uses when determining what switches to pass to xc32-as, xc32-ld, etc. More than one -specs=file can be specified on the command line, and they are processed in order, from left to right. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Compiler Command Line Driver 3.9.12 Options for Code Generation Conventions Options of the form -fflag specify machine-independent flags. Most flags have both positive and negative forms. The negative form of -ffoo would be -fno-foo. In the table below, only one of the forms is listed (the one that is not the default). TABLE 3-18: CODE GENERATION CONVENTION OPTIONS Option Definition -fargument-alias -fargument-noalias -fargumentnoalias-global Specify the possible relationships among parameters and between parameters and global data. -fargument-alias specifies that arguments (parameters) may alias each other and may alias global storage. -fargument-noalias specifies that arguments do not alias each other, but may alias global storage. -fargument-noalias-global specifies that arguments do not alias each other and do not alias global storage. Each language automatically uses whatever option is required by the language standard. You should not need to use these options yourself. -fcall-saved-reg Treat the register named reg as an allocatable register saved by functions. It may be allocated even for temporaries or variables that live across a call. Functions compiled this way saves and restores the register reg if they use it. It is an error to use this flag with the Frame Pointer or Stack Pointer. Use of this flag for other registers that have fixed pervasive roles in the machine's execution model produces disastrous results. A different sort of disaster results from the use of this flag for a register in which function values are returned. This flag should be used consistently through all modules. -fcall-used-reg Treat the register named reg as an allocatable register that is clobbered by function calls. It may be allocated for temporaries or variables that do not live across a call. Functions compiled this way do not save and restore the register reg. It is an error to use this flag with the Frame Pointer or Stack Pointer. Use of this flag for other registers that have fixed pervasive roles in the machine's execution model produces disastrous results. This flag should be used consistently through all modules. -ffixed-reg Treat the register named reg as a fixed register. Generated code should never refer to it (except perhaps as a Stack Pointer, Frame Pointer or in some other fixed role). reg must be the name of a register (e.g., -ffixed-$0). 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 83 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide TABLE 3-18: CODE GENERATION CONVENTION OPTIONS (CONTINUED) Option DS51686E-page 84 Definition -finstrumentfunctions Generate instrumentation calls for entry and exit to functions. Just after function entry and just before function exit, the following profiling functions are called with the address of the current function and its call site. void __cyg_profile_func_enter (void *this_fn, void *call_site); void __cyg_profile_func_exit (void *this_fn, void *call_site); The first argument is the address of the start of the current function, which may be looked up exactly in the symbol table. The profiling functions should be provided by the user. Function instrumentation requires the use of a Frame Pointer. Some optimization levels disable the use of the Frame Pointer. Using -fno-omit-frame-pointer prevents this. This instrumentation is also done for functions expanded inline in other functions. The profiling calls indicates where, conceptually, the inline function is entered and exited. This means that addressable versions of such functions must be available. If all your uses of a function are expanded inline, this may mean an additional expansion of code size. If you use extern inline in your C code, an addressable version of such functions must be provided. A function may be given the attribute no_instrument_function, in which case this instrumentation is not done. -fno-ident Ignore the #ident directive. -fpack-struct Pack all structure members together without holes. Usually you would not want to use this option, since it makes the code sub-optimal, and the offsets of structure members won't agree with system libraries. -fpcc-structreturn Return short struct and union values in memory like longer ones, rather than in registers. This convention is less efficient, but it has the advantage of allowing capability between 32-bit compiled files and files compiled with other compilers. Short structures and unions are those whose size and alignment match that of an integer type. -fno-short-double By default, the compiler uses a double type equivalent to float. This option makes double equivalent to long double. Mixing this option across modules can have unexpected results if modules share double data either directly through argument passage or indirectly through shared buffer space. Libraries provided with the product function with either switch setting. -fshort-enums Allocate to an enum type only as many bytes as it needs for the declared range of possible values. Specifically, the enum type is equivalent to the smallest integer type that has enough room. -fverbose-asm -fno-verbose-asm Put extra commentary information in the generated assembly code to make it more readable. -fno-verbose-asm, the default, causes the extra information to be omitted and is useful when comparing two assembler files. -fvolatile Consider all memory references through pointers to be volatile. -fvolatile-global Consider all memory references to external and global data items to be volatile. The use of this switch has no effect on static data. -fvolatile-static Consider all memory references to static data to be volatile. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Chapter 4. Device-Related Features 4.1 INTRODUCTION The MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler supports a number of special features and extensions to the C/C++ language which are designed to ease the task of producing ROM-based applications. This chapter documents the special language features which are specific to these devices. * * * * 4.2 Device Support Device Header Files Stack Using SFRs From C Code DEVICE SUPPORT MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler aims to support all PIC32 devices. However, new devices in these families are frequently released. Check the readme document for a full list of all available devices. 4.3 DEVICE HEADER FILES There is one header file that is recommended be included into each source file you write. The file is <xc.h> and is a generic file that will include other device-specific header files when you build your project. Inclusion of this file will allow access to SFRs via special variables, as well as #defines which allow the use of conventional register names from within assembly language files. 4.3.1 CP0 Register Definitions Header File The CP0 register definitions header file (cp0defs.h) is a file that contains definitions for the CP0 registers and their fields. In addition, it contains macros for accessing the CP0 registers. The CP0 register definitions header file is located in the pic32mx/include directory of your compiler installation directory. The CP0 register definitions header file is automatically included when you include the generic device header file, xc.h. The CP0 register definitions header file was designed to work with either Assembly or C/C++ files. The CP0 register definitions header file is dependent on macros defined within the processor generic header file). 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 85 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 4.4 STACK The PIC32 devices use what is referred to in this user's guide as a "software stack". This is the typical stack arrangement employed by most computers and is ordinary data memory accessed by a push-and-pop type instruction and a stack pointer register. The term "hardware stack" is used to describe the stack employed by Microchip 8-bit devices, which is only used for storing function return addresses. The PIC32 devices use a dedicated stack pointer register sp (register 29) for use as a software Stack Pointer. All processor stack operations, including function calls, interrupts and exceptions, use the software stack. It points to the next free location on the stack. The stack grows downward, towards lower memory addresses. By default, the size of the stack is 1024 bytes. The size of the stack may be changed by specifying the size on the linker command line using the --defsym_min_stack_size linker command line option. An example of allocating a stack of 2048 bytes using the command line is: xc32-gcc foo.c -Wl,--defsym,_min_stack_size=2048 The run-time stack grows downward from higher addresses to lower addresses. Two working registers are used to manage the stack: * Register 29 (sp) - This is the Stack Pointer. It points to the next free location on the stack. * Register 30 (fp) - This is the Frame Pointer. It points to the current function's frame. No stack overflow detection is supplied. The C/C++ run-time start-up module initializes the stack pointer during the start-up and initialization sequence, see Section 12.3.2 "Initialize Stack Pointer and Heap". 4.4.1 Configuration Bit Access The PIC32 devices have several locations which contain the Configuration bits or fuses. These bits specify fundamental device operation, such as the oscillator mode, watchdog timer, programming mode and code protection. Failure to correctly set these bits may result in code failure, or a non-running device. The #pragma config directive specifies the processor-specific configuration settings (i.e., Configuration bits) to be used by the application. Refer to the "PIC32MX Configuration Settings" online help (found under MPLAB IDE>Help>Topics>Language Tools) for more information. (If using the compiler from the command line, this help file is located at the default location at: Program Files/Microchip/<install-dir>/doc/hlpPIC32MXConfigSet.chm.) Configuration settings may be specified with multiple #pragma config directives. The compiler verifies that the configuration settings specified are valid for the processor for which it is compiling. If a given setting in the Configuration word has not been specified in any #pragma config directive, the bits associated with that setting default to the unprogrammed value. Configuration settings should be specified in only a single translation unit (a C/C++ file with all of its include files after preprocessing). For each Configuration word for which a setting is specified with the #pragma config directive, the compiler generates a read-only data section named .config_address, where address is the hexadecimal representation of the address of the Configuration word. For example, if a configuration setting was specified for the Configuration word located at address 0xBFC02FFC, a read-only data section named .config_BFC02FFC would be created. * Syntax * Example DS51686E-page 86 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Device-Related Features 4.4.1.1 SYNTAX The following shows the meta syntax notation for the different forms the pragma may take. pragma-config-directive: # pragma config setting-list setting-list: setting | setting-list, setting setting: setting-name = value-name The setting-name and value-name are device specific and can be determined by utilizing the PIC32MX Configuration Settings document. All #pragma config directives should be placed outside of a function definition as they do not define executable code. 4.4.1.2 EXAMPLE The following example shows how the #pragma config directive might be utilized. The example does the following: * Enables the Watchdog Timer * Sets the Watchdog Postscaler to 1:128 * Selects the HS Oscillator for the Primary Oscillator #pragma config FWDTEN = ON, WDTPS = PS128 #pragma config POSCMOD = HS ... int main (void) { ... } 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 87 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 4.5 USING SFRS FROM C CODE The Special Function Registers (SFRs) are registers which control aspects of the MCU operation or that of peripheral modules on the device. These registers are memory mapped, which means that they appear at specific addresses in the device memory map. With some registers, the bits within the register control independent features. Memory-mapped SFRs are accessed by special C variables that are placed at the addresses of the registers and use special attributes. These variables can be accessed like any ordinary C variable so that no special syntax is required to access SFRs. The SFR variables are predefined in header files and will be accessible once the <xc.h> header file (see Section 4.3 "Device Header Files") has been included into your source code. Structures are also defined by these header files to allow access to bits within the SFR. The names given to the C variables, which map over the registers and bit variables, or bit fields, within the registers are based on the names specified in the device data sheet. The names of the structures that hold the bit fields will typically be those of the corresponding register followed by bits. For example, the following shows code that includes the generic header file, clears PORTB as a whole and sets bit 2 of PORTB using the structure/bit field definitions. Note: The symbols PORTB and PORTBbits refer to the same register and resolve to the same address. Writing to one register will change the values held by both. #include <xc.h> int main(void) { PORTB = 0x00; PORTBbits.RB2 = 1; } For use with assembly, the PORTB register is declared as: .extern PORTB. To confirm the names that are relevant for the device you are using, check the device specific header file that <xc.h> will include for the definitions of each variable. These files will be located in the pic32mx/include/proc directory of the compiler and will have a name that represents the device. There is a one-to-one correlation between device and header file name that will be included by <xc.h>, e.g. when compiling for a PIC32MX360F512L device, the <xc.h> header file will include <p32mx360f512l.h>. Remember that you do not need to include this chip-specific file into your source code; it is automatically included by <xc.h>. Some of the PIC32 SFRs have associated registers that allow the bits within the SFR to be set, cleared or toggled atomically. For example, the PORTB SFR has the write-only registers PORTBSET, PORTBCLR and PORTBINV associated with it. Writing a `1' to a bit location in these registers sets, clears or toggles, respectively, the corresponding bit in the PORTB SFR. So to set bit 1 in PORTB, you can use the following code: PORTBSET = 0x2; or alternatively, using macros provided in the device header files: PORTBSET = _PORTB_RB1_MASK; The same operation can also be achieved using the peripheral library functions, for example mPORTBSetBits(BIT_1); Always ensure that you confirm the operation of peripheral modules from the device data sheet. DS51686E-page 88 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Device-Related Features 4.5.1 CP0 Register Definitions When the CP0 register definitions header file is included from an Assembly file, the CP0 registers are defined as: #define _CP0_register_name $register_number, select_number For example, the IntCtl register is defined as: #define _CP0_INTCTL $12, 1 When the CP0 register definitions header file is included from a C file, the CP0 registers and selects are defined as: #define _CP0_register_name register_number #define _CP0_register_name_SELECT select_number For example, the IntCtl register is defined as: #define _CP0_INTCTL 12 #define _CP0_INTCTL_SELECT 1 4.5.2 CP0 Register Field Definitions When the CP0 register definitions header file is included from either an Assembly or a C/C++ file, three #defines exist for each of the CP0 register fields. _CP0_register_name_field_name_POSITION - the starting bit location _CP0_register_name_field_name_MASK - the bits that are part of this field are set _CP0_register_name_field_name_LENGTH - the number of bits that this field occupies For example, the vector spacing field of the IntCtl register has the following defines: #define _CP0_INTCTL_VS_POSITION 0x00000005 #define _CP0_INTCTL_VS_MASK 0x000003E0 #define _CP0_INTCTL_VS_LENGTH 0x00000005 4.5.3 CP0 Access Macros When the CP0 register definitions header file is included from a C file, CP0 access macros are defined. Each CP0 register may have up to six different access macros defined: _CP0_GET_register_name () Returns the value for register, register_name. _CP0_SET_register_name (val) Sets the register, register_name, to val, and returns void. Only defined for registers that contain a writable field. _CP0_XCH_register_name (val) Sets the register, register_name, to val, and returns the previous register value. Only defined for registers that contain a writable field. _CP0_BIS_register_name (set) Sets the register, register_name, to (reg |= set), and returns the previous register value. Only defined for registers that contain writable bit fields. _CP0_BIC_register_name (clr) Sets the register, register_name, to (reg &= ~clr), and returns the previous register value. Only defined for registers that contain writable bit fields. _CP0_BCS_register_name (clr, set) 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Sets the register, register_name, to (reg = (reg & ~clr) | set), and returns the previous register value. Only defined for registers that contain writable bit fields. DS51686E-page 89 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 4.5.4 Address Translation Macros System code may need to translate between virtual and physical addresses, as well as between kernel segment addresses. Macros are provided to make these translations easier and to determine the segment an address is in. KVA_TO_PA(v) Translate a kernel virtual address to a physical address. PA_TO_KVA0(pa) Translate a physical address to a KSEG0 virtual address. PA_TO_KVA1(pa) Translate a physical address to a KSEG1 virtual address. KVA0_TO_KVA1(v) Translate a KSEG0 virtual address to a KSEG1 virtual address. KVA1_TO_KVA0(v) Translate a KSEG1 virtual address to a KSEG0 virtual address. DS51686E-page 90 IS_KVA(v) Evaluates to 1 if the address is a kernel segment virtual address, zero otherwise. IS_KVA0(v) Evaluate to 1 if the address is a KSEG0 virtual address, zero otherwise. IS_KVA1(v) Evaluate to 1 if the address is a KSEG1 virtual address, zero otherwise. IS_KVA01(v) Evaluate to 1 if the address is either a KSEG0 or a KSEG1 virtual address, zero otherwise. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Chapter 5. ANSI C Standard Issues This compiler conforms to the ANS X3.159-1989 Standard for programming languages. This is commonly called the C89 Standard. It is referred to as the ANSI C Standard in this manual. Some features from the later standard C99 are also supported. * Divergence from the ANSI C Standard * Extensions to the ANSI C Standard * Implementation-defined behavior 5.1 DIVERGENCE FROM THE ANSI C STANDARD There are no divergences from the ANSI C standard. 5.2 EXTENSIONS TO THE ANSI C STANDARD C/C++ code for the MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler differs from the ANSI C standard in these areas: keywords, statements and expressions. 5.2.1 Keyword Differences The new keywords are part of the base GCC implementation and the discussions in the referenced sections are based on the standard GCC documentation, tailored for the specific syntax and semantics of the 32-bit compiler port of GCC. * Specifying Attributes of Variables - Section 6.12 "Variable Attributes" * Specifying Attributes of Functions - Section 10.2 "Function Attributes and Specifiers" * Inline Functions - Section 10.9 "Inline Functions" * Variables in Specified Registers - Section 6.12 "Variable Attributes" * Complex Numbers - Section 6.8 "Complex Data Types" * Referring to a Type with typeof - Section 6.10 "Standard Type Qualifiers" 5.2.2 Statement Differences The statement differences are part of the base GCC implementation, and the discussions in the referenced sections are based on the standard GCC documentation, tailored for the specific syntax and semantics of the 32-bit compiler port of GCC. * Labels as Values - Section 8.4 "Labels as Values" * Conditionals with Omitted Operands - Section 8.5 "Conditional Operator Operands" * Case Ranges - Section 8.6 "Case Ranges" 5.2.3 Expression Differences Expression differences are: * Binary constants - Section 6.9 "Constant Types and Formats". 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 91 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 5.3 IMPLEMENTATION-DEFINED BEHAVIOR Certain features of the ANSI C standard have implementation-defined behavior. This means that the exact behavior of some C code can vary from compiler to compiler. The exact behavior of the MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler is detailed throughout this documentation, and is fully summarized in Appendix 18. "Implementation-Defined Behavior". DS51686E-page 92 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Chapter 6. Supported Data Types and Variables 6.1 INTRODUCTION The MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler supports a variety of data types and attributes. These data types and variables are discussed here. For information on where variables are stored in memory, see Chapter 7. "Memory Allocation and Access". * * * * * * * * * * 6.2 Data Representation Integer Data Types Floating-Point Data Types Structures and Unions Pointer Types Complex Data Types Constant Types and Formats Standard Type Qualifiers Compiler-Specific Qualifiers Variable Attributes IDENTIFIERS A C/C++ variable identifier (the following is also true for function identifiers) is a sequence of letters and digits, where the underscore character "_" counts as a letter. Identifiers cannot start with a digit. Although they may start with an underscore, such identifiers are reserved for the compiler's use and should not be defined by your programs. Such is not the case for assembly domain identifiers, which often begin with an underscore Identifiers are case sensitive, so main is different than Main. All characters are significant in an identifier, although identifiers longer than 31 characters in length are less portable. 6.3 DATA REPRESENTATION The compiler stores multibyte values in little-endian format. That is, the Least Significant Byte is stored at the lowest address. For example, the 32-bit value 0x12345678 would be stored at address 0x100 as: Address 0x100 0x101 0x102 0x103 Data 0x78 0x56 0x34 0x12 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 93 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 6.4 INTEGER DATA TYPES Integer values in the compiler are represented in 2's complement and vary in size from 8 to 64 bits. These values are available in compiled code via limits.h. Type char, signed char unsigned char short, signed short unsigned short int, signed int, long, signed long unsigned int, unsigned long long long, signed long long unsigned long long 6.4.1 Bits Min Max 8 -128 127 8 0 255 16 -32768 32767 16 0 65535 32 -231 231-1 32 0 232-1 63 64 -2 263-1 64 0 264-1 Signed and Unsigned Character Types By default, values of type plain char are signed values. This behavior is implementation-defined by the C standard, and some environments1 define a plain C/C++ char value to be unsigned. The command line option -funsigned-char can be used to set the default type to unsigned for a given translation unit. 6.4.2 limits.h The limits.h header file defines the ranges of values which can be represented by the integer types. Macro name Value Description CHAR_BIT 8 The size, in bits, of the smallest non-bit field object. SCHAR_MIN -128 The minimum value possible for an object of type signed char. SCHAR_MAX 127 The maximum value possible for an object of type signed char. UCHAR_MAX 255 The maximum value possible for an object of type unsigned char. CHAR_MIN -128 (or 0, see The minimum value possible for an object of Section 6.4.1 "Signed type char. and Unsigned Character Types") CHAR_MAX 127 (or 255, see The maximum value possible for an object of Section 6.4.1 "Signed type char. and Unsigned Character Types") MB_LEN_MAX 16 The maximum length of multibyte character in any locale. SHRT_MIN -32768 The minimum value possible for an object of type short int. SHRT_MAX 32767 The maximum value possible for an object of type short int. USHRT_MAX 65535 The maximum value possible for an object of type unsigned short int. 1. Notably, PowerPC and ARM. DS51686E-page 94 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Supported Data Types and Variables Macro name Value Description INT_MIN -2 31 The minimum value possible for an object of type int. INT_MAX 231-1 The maximum value possible for an object of type int. UINT_MAX 232-1 The maximum value possible for an object of type unsigned int. LONG_MIN -231 The minimum value possible for an object of type long. LONG_MAX 231-1 The maximum value possible for an object of type long. ULONG_MAX 232-1 The maximum value possible for an object of type unsigned long. LLONG_MIN -263 The minimum value possible for an object of type long long. LLONG_MAX 263-1 The maximum value possible for an object of type long long. ULLONG_MAX 264-1 The maximum value possible for an object of type unsigned long long. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 95 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 6.5 FLOATING-POINT DATA TYPES The compiler uses the IEEE-754 floating-point format. Detail regarding the implementation limits is available to a translation unit in float.h. Type Bits float 32 double 32 long double 64 Variables may be declared using the float, double and long double keywords, respectively, to hold values of these types. Floating-point types are always signed and the unsigned keyword is illegal when specifying a floating-point type. All floating-point values are represented in little endian format with the Least Significant Byte at the lower address. This format is described in Table 6-1, where: * Sign is the sign bit which indicates if the number is positive or negative * For 32-bit floating point values, the exponent is 8 bits which is stored as excess 127 (i.e. an exponent of 0 is stored as 127). * For 64-bit floating point values, the exponent is 11 bits which is stored as excess 1023 (i.e. an exponent of 0 is stored as 1023). * Mantissa is the mantissa, which is to the right of the radix point. There is an implied bit to the left of the radix point which is always 1 except for a zero value, where the implied bit is zero. A zero value is indicated by a zero exponent. The value of this number for 32-bit floating point values is: (-1)sign x 2(exponent-127) x 1. mantissa and for 64-bit values (-1)sign x 2(exponent-1023) x 1. mantissa. Here is an example of the IEEE 754 32-bit format shown in Table 6-1. Note that the Most Significant bit of the mantissa column (i.e. the bit to the left of the radix point) is the implied bit, which is assumed to be 1 unless the exponent is zero (in which case the float is zero). TABLE 6-1: Format 32-bit FLOATING-POINT FORMAT EXAMPLE IEEE 754 Number 7DA6B69Bh Biased exponent 1.mantissa Decimal 11111011b 1.0100110101101101 0011011b 2.77000e+37 (251) (1.302447676659) -- The example in Table 6-1 can be calculated manually as follows. The sign bit is zero; the biased exponent is 251, so the exponent is 251-127=124. Take the binary number to the right of the decimal point in the mantissa. Convert this to decimal and divide it by 223 where 23 is the number of bits taken up by the mantissa, to give 0.302447676659. Add 1 to this fraction. The floating-point number is then given by: -1021241.302447676659 which becomes: 12.126764793256e+371.302447676659 which is approximately equal to: 2.77000e+37 DS51686E-page 96 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Supported Data Types and Variables Binary floating-point values are sometimes misunderstood. It is important to remember that not every floating-point value can be represented by a finite sized floating-point number. The size of the exponent in the number dictates the range of values that the number can hold, and the size of the mantissa relates to the spacing of each value that can be represented exactly. Thus the 64-bit floating-point format allows for values with a larger range of values and that can be more accurately represented. So, for example, if you are using a 32-bit wide floating-point type, it can exactly store the value 95000.0. However, the next highest number it can represent is (approximately) 95000.00781 and it is impossible to represent any value in between these two in such a type as it will be rounded. This implies that C/C++ code which compares floating-point type may not behave as expected. For example: volatile float myFloat; myFloat = 95000.006; if(myFloat == 95000.007) LATA++; // value will be rounded // this line will be executed! in which the result of the if() expression will be true, even though it appears the two values being compared are different. The characteristics of the floating-point formats are summarized in Table 6-2. The symbols in this table are preprocessor macros which are available after including <float.h> in your source code. Two sets of macros are available for float and double types, where XXX represents FLT and DBL, respectively. So, for example, FLT_MAX represents the maximum floating-point value of the float type. DBL_MAX represents the same values for the double type. As the size and format of floating-point data types are not fully specified by the ANSI Standard, these macros allow for more portable code which can check the limits of the range of values held by the type on this implementation. TABLE 6-2: RANGES OF FLOATING-POINT TYPE VALUES Symbol XXX_RADIX XXX_ROUNDS XXX_MIN_EXP Meaning 32-bit Value Radix of exponent representation 2 Rounding mode for addition 64-bit Value 2 1 Min. n such that FLT_RADIXn-1 is -125 a normalized float value -1021 XXX_MIN_10_E XP Min. n such that 10n is a normalized float value -37 -307 XXX_MAX_EXP Max. n such that FLT_RADIXn-1 is a normalized float value 128 1024 XXX_MAX_10_E XP Max. n such that 10n is a normalized float value 38 308 XXX_MANT_DIG Number of FLT_RADIX mantissa 24 digits 53 XXX_EPSILON The smallest number which added to 1.0 does not yield 1.0 2.22044604925 03131e-16 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. 1.1920929e-07 DS51686E-page 97 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 6.6 STRUCTURES AND UNIONS MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler supports struct and union types. Structures and unions only differ in the memory offset applied to each member. These types will be at least 1 byte wide. Bit fields are fully supported. No padding of structure members is added. Structures and unions may be passed freely as function arguments and function return values. Pointers to structures and unions are fully supported. 6.6.1 Structure and Union Qualifiers The MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler supports the use of type qualifiers on structures. When a qualifier is applied to a structure, all of its members will inherit this qualification. In the following example the structure is qualified const. const struct { int number; int *ptr; } record = { 0x55, &i }; In this case, the entire structure will be placed into the program memory and each member will be read-only. Remember that all members are usually initialized if a structure is const as they cannot be initialized at runtime. If the members of the structure were individually qualified const, but the structure was not, then the structure would be positioned into RAM, but each member would be read-only. Compare the following structure with the above. struct { const int number; int * const ptr; } record = { 0x55, &i}; 6.6.2 Bit Fields in Structures MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler fully supports bit fields in structures. Bit fields are always allocated within 8-bit storage units, even though it is usual to use the type unsigned int in the definition. Storage units are aligned on a 32-bit boundary, although this can be changed using the packed attribute. The first bit defined will be the Least Significant bit of the word in which it will be stored. When a bit field is declared, it is allocated within the current 8-bit unit if it will fit; otherwise, a new byte is allocated within the structure. Bit fields can never cross the boundary between 8-bit allocation units. For example, the declaration: struct { unsigned unsigned unsigned } foo; lo : 1; dummy : 6; hi : 1; will produce a structure occupying 1 byte. If foo was ultimately linked at address 10H, the field lo will be bit 0 of address 10H; hi will be bit 7 of address 10H. The Least Significant bit of dummy will be bit 1 of address 10H and the Most Significant bit of dummy will be bit 6 of address 10h. DS51686E-page 98 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Supported Data Types and Variables Unnamed bit fields may be declared to pad out unused space between active bits in control registers. For example, if dummy is never referenced, the structure above could have been declared as: struct { unsigned unsigned unsigned } foo; lo : 1; : 6; hi : 1; A structure with bit fields may be initialized by supplying a comma-separated list of initial values for each field. For example: struct { unsigned unsigned unsigned } foo = {1, 8, 0}; lo : 1; mid : 6; hi : 1; Structures with unnamed bit fields may be initialized. No initial value should be supplied for the unnamed members, for example: struct { unsigned unsigned unsigned } foo = {1, 0}; lo hi : 1; : 6; : 1; will initialize the members lo and hi correctly. The MPLAB XC compiler supports anonymous unions. These are unions with no identifier and whose members can be accessed without referencing the enclosing union. These unions can be used when placing inside structures. For example: struct { union { int x; double y; }; } aaa; int main(void) { aaa.x = 99; // ...} Here, the union is not named and its members accessed as if they are part of the structure. Anonymous unions are not part of any C Standard and so their use limits the portability of any code. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 99 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 6.7 POINTER TYPES There are two basic pointer types supported by the MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler: data pointers and function pointers. Data pointers hold the addresses of variables which can be indirectly read, and possible indirectly written, by the program. Function pointers hold the address of an executable function which can be called indirectly via the pointer. 6.7.1 Combining Type Qualifiers and Pointers It is helpful to first review the ANSI C/C++ standard conventions for definitions of pointer types. Pointers can be qualified like any other C/C++ object, but care must be taken when doing so as there are two quantities associated with pointers. The first is the actual pointer itself, which is treated like any ordinary C/C++ variable and has memory reserved for it. The second is the target, or targets, that the pointer references, or to which the pointer points. The general form of a pointer definition looks like the following: target_type_&_qualifiers * pointer's_qualifiers pointer's_name; Any qualifiers to the right of the * (i.e. next to the pointer's name) relate to the pointer variable itself. The type and any qualifiers to the left of the * relate to the pointer's targets. This makes sense since it is also the * operator that dereferences a pointer, which allows you to get from the pointer variable to its current target. Here are three examples of pointer definitions using the volatile qualifier. The fields in the definitions have been highlighted with spacing: volatile int * int * volatile volatile int * volatile vip ; ivp ; vivp ; The first example is a pointer called vip. It contains the address of int objects that are qualified volatile. The pointer itself -- the variable that holds the address -- is not volatile; however, the objects that are accessed when the pointer is dereferenced are treated as being volatile. In other words, the target objects accessible via the pointer may be externally modified. The second example is a pointer called ivp which also contains the address of int objects. In this example, the pointer itself is volatile, that is, the address the pointer contains may be externally modified; however, the objects that can be accessed when dereferencing the pointer are not volatile. The last example is of a pointer called vivp which is itself qualified volatile, and which also holds the address of volatile objects. Bear in mind that one pointer can be assigned the addresses of many objects; for example, a pointer that is a parameter to a function is assigned a new object address every time the function is called. The definition of the pointer must be valid for every target address assigned. Note: 6.7.2 Care must be taken when describing pointers. Is a "const pointer" a pointer that points to const objects, or a pointer that is const itself? You can talk about "pointers to const" and "const pointers" to help clarify the definition, but such terms may not be universally understood. Data Pointers Pointers in the compiler are all 32 bits in size. These can hold an address which can reach all memory locations. DS51686E-page 100 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Supported Data Types and Variables 6.7.3 Function Pointers The MPLAB XC compiler fully supports pointers to functions, which allows functions to be called indirectly. These are often used to call one of several function addresses stored in a user-defined C/C++ array, which acts like a lookup table. Function pointers are always 32 bits in size and hold the address of the function to be called. Any attempt to call a function with a function pointer containing NULL will result in an ifetch Bus Error. 6.7.3.1 SPECIAL POINTER TARGETS Pointers and integers are not interchangeable. Assigning an integer constant to a pointer will generate a warning to this effect. For example: const char * cp = 0x123; // the compiler will flag this as bad code There is no information in the integer constant, 0x123, relating to the type or size of the destination. This code is also not portable and there is a very good chance of code failure if pointers are assigned integer addresses and dereferenced, particularly for PIC(R) devices that have more than one memory space. Always take the address of a C/C++ object when assigning an address to a pointer. If there is no C/C++ object defined at the destination address, then define or declare an object at this address which can be used for this purpose. Make sure the size of the object matches the range of the memory locations that can be accessed. For example, a checksum for 1000 memory locations starting at address 0xA0001000 is to be generated. A pointer is used to read this data. You may be tempted to write code such as: int * cp; cp = 0xA0001000; // what resides at 0xA0001000??? and increment the pointer over the data. A much better solution is this: int * cp; int __attribute__((address(0xA0001000))) inputData [1000]; cp = &inputData; // cp is incremented over inputData and used to read values there In this case, the compiler can determine the size of the target and the memory space. The array size and type indicates the size of the pointer target. Take care when comparing (subtracting) pointers. For example: if(cp1 == cp2) ; take appropriate action The ANSI C standard only allows pointer comparisons when the two pointer targets are the same object. The address may extend to one element past the end of an array. Comparisons of pointers to integer constants are even more risky, for example: if(cp1 == 0xA0000100) ; take appropriate action A NULL pointer is the one instance where a constant value can be assigned to a pointer and this is handled correctly by the compiler. A NULL pointer is numerically equal to 0 (zero), but this is a special case imposed by the ANSI C standard. Comparisons with the macro NULL are also allowed. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 101 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 6.8 COMPLEX DATA TYPES Complex data types are currently not implemented in MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler. 6.9 CONSTANT TYPES AND FORMATS A constant is used to represent a numerical value in the source code, for example 123 is a constant. Like any value, a constant must have a C/C++ type. In addition to a constant's type, the actual value can be specified in one of several formats. The format of integral constants specifies their radix. MPLAB XC32 C supports the ANSI standard radix specifiers as well as ones which enables binary constants to be specified in C code. The formats used to specify the radices are given in Table 6-3. The letters used to specify binary or hexadecimal radices are case insensitive, as are the letters used to specify the hexadecimal digits. TABLE 6-3: RADIX FORMATS Radix binary Format Example octal 0b number or 0B number 0 number 0763 0b10011010 decimal number 129 hexadecimal 0x number or 0X number 0x2F Any integral constant will have a type of int, long int or long long int, so that the type can hold the value without overflow. Constants specified in octal or hexadecimal may also be assigned a type of unsigned int, unsigned long int or unsigned long long int if the signed counterparts are too small to hold the value. The default types of constants may be changed by the addition of a suffix after the digits, e.g. 23U, where U is the suffix. Table 6-4 shows the possible combination of suffixes and the types that are considered when assigning a type. So, for example, if the suffix l is specified and the value is a decimal constant, the compiler will assign the type long int, if that type will hold the constant; otherwise, it will assigned long long int. If the constant was specified as an octal or hexadecimal constant, then unsigned types are also considered. TABLE 6-4: SUFFIXES AND ASSIGNED TYPES Suffix Decimal Octal or Hexadecimal u or U unsigned int unsigned int unsigned long int unsigned long int unsigned long long int unsigned long long int l or L long int long long int u or U, and l or L unsigned long int unsigned long int unsigned long long int unsigned long long int ll or LL long long int u or U, and ll or LL unsigned long long int unsigned long long int long int unsigned long int long long int unsigned long long int long long int unsigned long long int Here is an example of code that may fail because the default type assigned to a constant is not appropriate: unsigned long int result; DS51686E-page 102 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Supported Data Types and Variables unsigned char shifter; int main(void) { shifter = 40; result = 1 << shifter; // code that uses result } The constant 1 will be assigned an int type hence the result of the shift operation will be an int and the upper bits of the long variable, result, can never be set, regardless of how much the constant is shifted. In this case, the value 1 shifted left 40 bits will yield the result 0, not 0x10000000000. The following uses a suffix to change the type of the constant, hence ensure the shift result has an unsigned long type. result = 1UL << shifter; Floating-point constants have double type unless suffixed by f or F, in which case it is a float constant. The suffixes l or L specify a long double type. Character constants are enclosed by single quote characters, ', for example 'a'. A character constant has int type, although this may be optimized to a char type later in the compilation. Multi-byte character constants are accepted by the compiler but are not supported by the standard libraries. String constants, or string literals, are enclosed by double quote characters ", for example "hello world". The type of string constants is const char * and the character that make up the string are stored in the program memory, as are all objects qualified const. To comply with the ANSI C standard, the compiler does not support the extended character set in characters or character arrays. Instead, they need to be escaped using the backslash character, as in the following example: const char name[] = "Bj\370rk"; printf("%s's Resum\351", name); \\ prints "Bjork's Resume" Assigning a string literal to a pointer to a non-const char will generate a warning from the compiler. This code is legal, but the behavior if the pointer attempts to write to the string will fail. For example: char * cp= "one"; const char * ccp= "two"; // "one" in ROM, produces warning // "two" in ROM, correct Defining and initializing a non-const array (i.e. not a pointer definition) with a string, for example: char ca[]= "two"; // "two" different to the above is a special case and produces an array in data space which is initialized at start-up with the string "two" (copied from program space), whereas a string constant used in other contexts represents an unnamed const -qualified array, accessed directly in program space. The MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler will use the same storage location and label for strings that have identical character sequences. For example, in the code snippet if(strncmp(scp, "hello world", 6) == 0) fred = 0; if(strcmp(scp, "hello world") == 0) fred++; 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 103 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide the two identical character string greetings will share the same memory locations. The link-time optimization must be enabled to allow this optimization when the strings may be located in different modules. Two adjacent string constants (i.e. two strings separated only by white space) are concatenated by the compiler. Thus: const char * cp = "hello" " world"; will assign the pointer with the address of the string "hello world ". 6.10 STANDARD TYPE QUALIFIERS Type qualifiers provide additional information regarding how an object may be used. The MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler supports both ANSI C qualifiers and additional special qualifiers which are useful for embedded applications and which take advantage of the PIC MCU architecture. 6.10.1 Const Type Qualifier The MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler supports the use of the ANSI type qualifiers const and volatile. The const type qualifier is used to tell the compiler that an object is read only and will not be modified. If any attempt is made to modify an object declared const, the compiler will issue a warning or error. Usually a const object must be initialized when it is declared, as it cannot be assigned a value at any point at runtime. For example: const int version = 3; will define version as being an int variable that will be placed in the program memory, will always contain the value 3, and which can never be modified by the program. Objects qualified const are placed into the program memory unless the -mno-embedded-data option is used. 6.10.2 Volatile Type Qualifier The volatile type qualifier is used to tell the compiler that an object cannot be guaranteed to retain its value between successive accesses. This prevents the optimizer from eliminating apparently redundant references to objects declared volatile because it may alter the behavior of the program to do so. Any SFR which can be modified by hardware or which drives hardware is qualified as volatile, and any variables which may be modified by interrupt routines should use this qualifier as well. For example: extern volatile unsigned int WDTCON __attribute__((section("sfrs"))); The volatile qualifier does not guarantee that any access will be atomic, but the compiler will try to implement this. The code produced by the compiler to access volatile objects may be different than that to access ordinary variables, and typically the code will be longer and slower for volatile objects, so only use this qualifier if it is necessary. However failure to use this qualifier when it is required may lead to code failure. Another use of the volatile keyword is to prevent variables from being removed if they are not used in the C/C++ source. If a non-volatile variable is never used, or used in a way that has no effect on the program's function, then it may be removed before code is generated by the compiler. DS51686E-page 104 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Supported Data Types and Variables A C/C++ statement that consists only of a volatile variable's name will produce code that reads the variable's memory location and discards the result. For example the entire statement: PORTB; will produce assembly code the reads PORTB, but does nothing with this value. This is useful for some peripheral registers that require reading to reset the state of interrupt flags. Normally such a statement is not encoded as it has no effect. 6.11 COMPILER-SPECIFIC QUALIFIERS There are no non-standard qualifiers implemented in MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler. Attributes are used to control variables and functions. 6.12 VARIABLE ATTRIBUTES The compiler keyword attribute allows you to specify special attributes of variables or structure fields. This keyword is followed by an attribute specification inside double parentheses. To specify multiple attributes, separate them by commas within the double parentheses, for example: attribute ((aligned (16), packed)). Note: It is important to use variable attributes consistently throughout a project. For example, if a variable is defined in file A with the aligned attribute, and declared extern in file B without aligned, then a link error may result. address (addr) Specify an absolute virtual address for the variable. This attribute can be used in conjunction with a section attribute. For data variables, the address is typically in the range [0xA0000000,0xA00FFFFC], as defined in the linker script as the `kseg1_data_mem' region. This attribute can be used to start a group of variables at a specific address: int foo __attribute__((section("mysection"),address(0xA0001000))); int bar __attribute__((section("mysection"))); int baz __attribute__((section("mysection"))); Keep in mind that the compiler performs no error checking on the specified address. The section will be located at the specified address regardless of the memory-region ranges listed in the linker script or the actual ranges on the target device. This application code is responsible for ensuring that the address is valid for the target device and application. Also, be aware that variables attributed with an absolute address are not accessed via GP-relative addressing. This means that they may be more expensive to access than non-address attributed variables. In addition, to make effective use of absolute sections and the new best-fit allocator, standard program-memory and data-memory sections should not be mapped in the linker script. The built-in linker script does not map most standard sections such as the .text, .data, .bss, or .ramfunc section. By not mapping these sections in the linker script, we allow these sections to be allocated using the best-fit allocator rather than the sequential allocator. Sections that are unmapped in the linker script can flow around absolute sections whereas sections that are linker-script mapped are grouped together and allocated sequentially, potentially causing conflicts with absolute sections. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 105 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide Finally, note that "small" data and bss (.sdata, .sbss, etc.) sections are still mapped in the built-in default linker script. This is because "small" data variables must be grouped together so that they are within range of the more efficient GP-relative addressing mode. To avoid conflict with these linker-script mapped sections, choose high addresses for your absolute-address variables. Note: In almost all cases, you will want to combine the address attribute with the space attribute to indicate code or data. aligned (n) The attributed variable will be aligned on the next n byte boundary. The aligned attribute can also be used on a structure member. Such a member will be aligned to the indicated boundary within the structure. If the alignment value n is omitted, the alignment of the variable is set 8 (the largest alignment value for a basic data type). Note that the aligned attribute is used to increase the alignment of a variable, not reduce it. To decrease the alignment value of a variable, use the packed attribute. cleanup (function) Indicate a function to call when the attributed automatic function scope variable goes out of scope. The indicated function should take a single parameter, a pointer to a type compatible with the attributed variable, and have void return type. deprecated deprecated (msg) When a variable specified as deprecated is used, a warning is generated. The optional msg argument, which must be a string, will be printed in the warning, if present. packed The attributed variable or structure member will have the smallest possible alignment. That is, no alignment padding storage will be allocated for the declaration. Used in combination with the aligned attribute, packed can be used to set an arbitrary alignment restriction greater or lesser than the default alignment for the type of the variable or structure member. section ("section-name") Place the variable into the named section. For example, unsigned int dan __attribute__ ((section (".quixote"))) Variable dan will be placed in section .quixote. The -fdata-sections command line option has no effect on variables defined with a section attribute unless unique_section is also specified. DS51686E-page 106 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Supported Data Types and Variables space (space) The space attribute can be used to direct the compiler to allocate a variable in specific memory spaces. unique_section Place the variable in a uniquely named section, just as if -fdata-sections had been specified. If the variable also has a section attribute, use that section name as the prefix for generating the unique section name. For example, int tin __attribute__ ((section (".ofcatfood"), unique_section) Variable tin will be placed in section .ofcatfood. unused Indicate to the compiler that the variable may not be used. The compiler will not issue a warning for this variable if it is not used. weak The weak attribute causes the declaration to be emitted as a weak symbol. A weak symbol indicates that if a global version of the same symbol is available, that version should be used instead. When weak is applied to a reference to an external symbol, the symbol is not required for linking. For example: extern int __attribute__((__weak__)) s; int foo() { if (&s) return s; return 0; /* possibly some other value */ } In the above program, if s is not defined by some other module, the program will still link but s will not be given an address. The conditional verifies that s has been defined (and returns its value if it has). Otherwise `0' is returned. There are many uses for this feature, mostly to provide generic code that can link with an optional library. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 107 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide NOTES: DS51686E-page 108 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Chapter 7. Memory Allocation and Access 7.1 INTRODUCTION There are two broad groups of RAM-based variables: auto/parameter variables, which are allocated to some form of stack, and global/static variables, which are positioned freely throughout the data memory space. The memory allocation of these two groups is discussed separately in the following sections. * * * * * * * 7.2 Address Spaces Variables in Data Memory Auto Variable Allocation and Access Variables in Program Memory Variables in Registers Dynamic Memory Allocation Memory Models ADDRESS SPACES Unlike the 8- and 16-bit PIC devices, the PIC32 has a unified programming model. PIC32 devices provide a single 32-bit wide address space for all code, data, peripherals and Configuration bits. Memory regions within this single address space are designated for different purposes; for example, as memory for instruction code or memory for data. Internally the device uses separate buses1 to access the instructions and data in these regions, thus allowing for parallel access. The terms program memory and data memory, which are used on the 8- and 16-bit PIC devices, are still relevant on PIC32 devices, but the smaller parts implement these in different address spaces. All addresses used by the CPU within the device are virtual addresses. These are mapped to physical addresses by the system control processor (CP0). 1.The device can be considered a Harvard architecture in terms of its internal bus arrangement. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 109 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 7.3 VARIABLES IN DATA MEMORY Most variables are ultimately positioned into the data memory. The exceptions are non-auto variables which are qualified as const, which are placed in the program memory space, see Section 6.10.1 "Const Type Qualifier". Due to the fundamentally different way in which auto variables and non-auto variables are allocated memory, they are discussed separately. To use the C/C++ language terminology, these two groups of variables are those with automatic storage duration and those with permanent storage duration, respectively. Note: 7.3.1 The terms "local" and "global" are commonly used to describe variables, but are not ones defined by the language standard. The term "local variable" is often taken to mean a variable which has scope inside a function, and "global variable" is one which has scope throughout the entire program. However, the C/C++ language has three common scopes: block, file (i.e. internal linkage) and program (i.e. external linkage), so using only two terms to describe these can be confusing. For example, a static variable defined outside a function has scope only in that file, so it is not globally accessible, but it can be accessed by more than one function inside that file, so it is not local to any one function either. In terms of memory allocation, variables are allocated space based on whether it is an auto or not, hence the grouping in the following sections. Non-auto Variable Allocation Non-auto variables (those with permanent storage duration) are located by the compiler into any of the available data banks. This is done in a two-stage process: placing each variable into an appropriate section and later linking that section into data memory. The compiler considers three categories of non-auto variable, which all relate to the value the variable should contain by the time the program begins. The following sections are used for the categories described. .pbss These sections are used to store variables which use the persistent attribute, whose values should not be altered by the runtime start-up code. They are not cleared or otherwise modified at start-up. .bss These sections (also .sbss) contain any uninitialized variables, which are not assigned a value when they are defined, or variables which should be cleared by the runtime start-up code. .data These sections (also .sdata) contain the RAM image of any initialized variables, which are assigned a non-zero initial value when they are defined and which must have a value copied to them by the runtime start-up code. Note that the data section used to hold initialized variables is the section that holds the RAM variables themselves. There is a corresponding section (called .dinit) that is placed into program memory (so it is non-volatile) and which is used to hold the initial values that are copied to the RAM variables by the runtime start-up code. 7.3.2 Static Variables All static variables have permanent storage duration, even those defined inside a function which are "local static" variables. Local static variables only have scope in the function or block in which they are defined, but unlike auto variables, their memory is reserved for the entire duration of the program. Thus, they are allocated memory like other non-auto variables. Static variables may be accessed by other functions via pointers since they have permanent duration. DS51686E-page 110 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Memory Allocation and Access Variables which are static are guaranteed to retain their value between calls to a function, unless explicitly modified via a pointer. Variables which are static and which are initialized only have their initial value assigned once during the program's execution. Thus, they may be preferable over initialized auto objects which are assigned a value every time the block they are defined in begins execution. Any initialized static variables are initialized in the same way as other non-auto initialized objects by the runtime start-up code, see Section 3.5.2 "Peripheral Library Functions". Static variables are located in the same sections as their non-static counterparts. 7.3.3 Non-auto Variable Size Limits Arrays of any type (including arrays of aggregate types) are fully supported by the compiler. So too are the structure and union aggregate types, see Section 6.6 "Structures and Unions". There are no theoretical limits as to how large these objects can be made. 7.3.4 Changing the Default Non-auto Variable Allocation There are several ways in which non-auto variables can be located in locations other than the default. Variables can be placed in other device memory spaces by the use of qualifiers. For example if you wish to place variables in the program memory space, then the const specifier should be used (see Section 6.10.1 "Const Type Qualifier"). If you wish to prevent all variables from using one or more data memory locations so that these locations can be used for some other purpose, you are best defining a variable (or array) using the address attribute so that it consumes the memory space, see Section 6.12 "Variable Attributes". If only a few non-auto variables are to be located at specific addresses in data space memory, then the variables can be located using the address attribute. This attribute is described in Section 6.12 "Variable Attributes". 7.3.5 Data Memory Allocation Macros Macros are provided for many commonly used attributes in order to enhance user code readability. __section__(s) Apply the section attribute with section name s. __unique_section__ Apply the unique_section attribute. __ramfunc__ Locate the attributed function in the RAM function code section. __longramfunc__ Locate the attributed function in the RAM function code section and apply the longcall attribute. __longcall__ Apply the longcall attribute. __ISR(v,ipl) Apply the interrupt attribute with priority level ipl and the vector attribute with vector number v. __ISR_AT_VECTOR(v,ipl) Apply the interrupt attribute with priority level ipl and the at_vector attribute with vector number v. __ISR_SINGLE__ Specifies a function as an Interrupt Service Routine in single-vector mode. This places a jump at the single-vector location to the interrupt handler. __ISR_SINGLE_AT_VECTOR_ Places the entire single-vector interrupt handler at the vector 0 location. When used, ensure that the vector _ spacing is set to accommodate the size of the handler. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 111 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 7.4 AUTO VARIABLE ALLOCATION AND ACCESS This section discusses allocation of auto variables (those with automatic storage duration). This also includes function parameter variables, which behave like auto variables, as well as temporary variables defined by the compiler. The auto (short for automatic) variables are the default type of local variable. Unless explicitly declared to be static, a local variable will be made auto. The auto keyword may be used if desired. The auto variables, as their name suggests, automatically come into existence when a function is executed, then disappear once the function returns. Since they are not in existence for the entire duration of the program, there is the possibility to reclaim memory they use when the variables are not in existence and allocate it to other variables in the program. The PIC32's software stack is used to store all auto variables. Functions are reentrant and each instance of the function has its own area of memory on the stack for its auto and parameter variables, as described below. See Section 4.4 "Stack" and Section 12.3.2 "Initialize Stack Pointer and Heap" for more information on the stack. The compiler dedicates General Purpose Register 29 as the software Stack Pointer. All processor stack operations, including function call, interrupts and exceptions use the software stack. The stack grows downward from high addresses to low addresses. By default, the size of the stack is 1024 bytes. The size of the stack may be changed by specifying the size on the linker command line using the --defsym_min_stack_size linker command line option. An example of allocating a stack of 2048 bytes using the command line is: xc32-gcc foo.c -Wl,--defsym,_min_stack_size=2048 The run-time stack grows downward from higher addresses to lower addresses (see Figure 7-1). The compiler uses two working registers to manage the stack: * Register 29 (sp) - This is the Stack Pointer. It points to the next free location on the stack. * Register 30 (fp) - This is the Frame Pointer. It points to the current function's frame. Each function, if required, creates a new frame from which automatic and temporary variables are allocated. Compiler optimization may eliminate Stack Pointer references via the Frame Pointer to equivalent references via the Stack Pointer. This optimization allows the Frame Pointer to be used as a General Purpose Register. DS51686E-page 112 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Memory Allocation and Access FIGURE 7-1: STACK FRAME Space for more arguments if necessary Caller Stack grows toward lower addresses Space for argument 4 Space for argument 3 Space for argument 2 Space for argument 1 FP Local variables and temporary values Callee Register save area Space for arguments used in function calls SP The the standard qualifiers const and volatile may both be used with auto variables and these do not affect how they are positioned in memory. This implies that a local const-qualified object is still an auto object and, as such, will be allocated memory on the stack in the data memory, not in the program memory like with non-auto const objects. 7.4.1 Local Variable Size Limits There is no theoretical maximum size for auto variables. 7.5 VARIABLES IN PROGRAM MEMORY The only variables that are placed into program memory are those that are not auto and which have been qualified const. If the -mno-embedded-data option is used, then even const objects are placed in RAM rather than the program memory. Any auto variables qualified const are placed on the stack along with other auto variables. Any const-qualified (auto or non-auto) variable will always be read-only and any attempt to write to these in your source code will result in an error being issued by the compiler. A const object is usually defined with initial values, as the program cannot write to these objects at runtime. However this is not a requirement. An uninitialized const object is allocated space in the bss section, along with other uninitialized RAM variables, but is still read-only. const char IOtype = 'A'; const char buffer[10]; 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. // initialized const object // I just reserve memory in RAM DS51686E-page 113 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 7.5.1 Size Limitations of const Variables There is no theoretical maximum size for const variables. 7.5.2 Changing the Default Allocation If you only intend to prevent all variables from using one or more program memory locations so that you can use those locations for some other purpose, you are best reserving the memory using the memory adjust options. If only a few non-auto const variables are to be located at specific addresses in program space memory, then the variables should use the address attribute to locate them at the desired location. This attribute is described in Section 6.12 "Variable Attributes". 7.6 VARIABLES IN REGISTERS Allocating variables to registers, rather than to a memory location, can make code more efficient. With MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler, variables may be allocated to registers as part of code optimizations. For optimization levels 1 and higher, the values assigned to variables may cached in a register. During this time, the memory location associated with the variable may not hold a valid value. The register keyword may be used to indicate your preference for the variable to be allocated a register, but this is just a recommendation and may not be honored. The specific register may be indicated as well, but this is not recommended as your register choice may conflict with the needs of the compiler. For example: register unsigned int foo __asm__("at"); will attempt to allocate foo to the at register. As indicated in Section 10.6 "Function Parameters", parameters may be passed to a function via a register. 7.7 DYNAMIC MEMORY ALLOCATION The run-time heap is an uninitialized area of data memory that is used for dynamic memory allocation using the standard C library dynamic memory management functions, calloc, malloc and realloc along with the C++ new operator. Most C++ applications will require a heap. If you do not use any of these functions, then you do not need to allocate a heap. By default, a heap is not created. If you do want to use dynamic memory allocation, either directly, by calling one of the memory allocation functions, or indirectly, by using a standard C library function that uses one of these functions, then a heap must be created. A heap is created by specifying its size on the linker command line using the --defsym_min_heap_size linker command line option. An example of allocating a heap of 512 bytes using the command line is: xc32-gcc foo.c -Wl,--defsym,_min_heap_size=512 An example of allocating a heap of 0xF000 bytes using the xc32-g++ driver is: xc32-g++ vector.cpp -Wl,--defsym,_min_heap_size=0xF000 The linker allocates the heap immediately before the stack. 7.8 MEMORY MODELS MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler does not use fixed memory models to alter allocation of variables to memory. DS51686E-page 114 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Memory Allocation and Access The -G option (see Section 3.9.1 "Options Specific to PIC32MX Devices"), which controls the gp-relative addressing threshold, is similar to the small-data/large-data/scalar-data memory models offered by the Microchip MPLAB XC16 compiler. The value specified with this option indicates the maximum size of objects that will be allocated to the small data sections, e.g. sbss, sdata, etc. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 115 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide NOTES: DS51686E-page 116 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Chapter 8. Operators and Statements 8.1 INTRODUCTION The MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler supports all ANSI operators. The exact results of some of these are implementation defined. Implementation-defined behavior is fully documented in Appendix 18. "Implementation-Defined Behavior". The following sections illustrate code operations that are often misunderstood, as well as additional operations that the compiler is capable of performing. * * * * * 8.2 Integral Promotion Type References Labels as Values Conditional Operator Operands Case Ranges INTEGRAL PROMOTION When there is more than one operand to an operator, they typically must be of exactly the same type. The compiler will automatically convert the operands, if necessary, so they do have the same type. The conversion is to a "larger" type so there is no loss of information; however, the change in type can cause different code behavior to what is sometimes expected. These form the standard type conversions. Prior to these type conversions, some operands are unconditionally converted to a larger type, even if both operands to an operator have the same type. This conversion is called integral promotion and is part of Standard C behavior. The MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler performs these integral promotions where required, and there are no options that can control or disable this operation. If you are not aware that the type has changed, the results of some expressions are not what would normally be expected. Integral promotion is the implicit conversion of enumerated types, signed or unsigned varieties of char, short int or bit field types to either signed int or unsigned int. If the result of the conversion can be represented by an signed int, then that is the destination type, otherwise the conversion is to unsigned int. Consider the following example: unsigned char count, a=0, b=50; if(a - b < 10) count++; The unsigned char result of a - b is 206 (which is not less than 10), but both a and b are converted to signed int via integral promotion before the subtraction takes place. The result of the subtraction with these data types is -50 (which is less than 10) and hence the body of the if() statement is executed. If the result of the subtraction is to be an unsigned quantity, then apply a cast. For example: if((unsigned int)(a - b) < 10) count++; The comparison is then done using unsigned int, in this case, and the body of the if() would not be executed. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 117 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide Another problem that frequently occurs is with the bitwise compliment operator, ~. This operator toggles each bit within a value. Consider the following code: unsigned char count, c; c = 0x55; if( ~c == 0xAA) count++; If c contains the value 0x55, it often assumed that ~c will produce 0xAA, however the result is 0xFFFFFFAA and so the comparison in the above example would fail. The compiler may be able to issue a mismatched comparison error to this effect in some circumstances. Again, a cast could be used to change this behavior. The consequence of integral promotion as illustrated above is that operations are not performed with char -type operands, but with int -type operands. However there are circumstances when the result of an operation is identical regardless of whether the operands are of type char or int. In these cases, the MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler will not perform the integral promotion so as to increase the code efficiency. Consider the following example: unsigned char a, b, c; a = b + c; Strictly speaking, this statement requires that the values of b and c should be promoted to unsigned int, the addition performed, the result of the addition cast to the type of a, and then the assignment can take place. Even if the result of the unsigned int addition of the promoted values of b and c was different to the result of the unsigned char addition of these values without promotion, after the unsigned int result was converted back to unsigned char, the final result would be the same. If an 8-bit addition is more efficient than a 32-bit addition, the compiler will encode the former. If, in the above example, the type of a was unsigned int, then integral promotion would have to be performed to comply with the ANSI C standard. 8.3 TYPE REFERENCES Another way to refer to the type of an expression is with the typeof keyword. This is a non-standard extension to the language. Using this feature reduces your code portability. The syntax for using this keyword looks like sizeof, but the construct acts semantically like a type name defined with typedef. There are two ways of writing the argument to typeof: with an expression or with a type. Here is an example with an expression: typeof (x[0](1)) This assumes that x is an array of functions; the type described is that of the values of the functions. Here is an example with a typename as the argument: typeof (int *) Here the type described is a pointer to int. If you are writing a header file that must work when included in ANSI C programs, write __typeof__ instead of typeof. A typeof construct can be used anywhere a typedef name could be used. For example, you can use it in a declaration, in a cast, or inside of sizeof or typeof. * This declares y with the type of what x points to: typeof (*x) y; * This declares y as an array of such values: typeof (*x) y[4]; DS51686E-page 118 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Operators and Statements * This declares y as an array of pointers to characters: typeof (typeof (char *)[4]) y; It is equivalent to the following traditional C declaration: char *y[4]; To see the meaning of the declaration using typeof, and why it might be a useful way to write, let's rewrite it with these macros: #define pointer(T) typeof(T *) #define array(T, N) typeof(T [N]) Now the declaration can be rewritten this way: array (pointer (char), 4) y; Thus, array (pointer (char), 4) is the type of arrays of four pointers to char. 8.4 LABELS AS VALUES You can get the address of a label defined in the current function (or a containing function) with the unary operator `&&'. This is a non-standard extension to the language. Using this feature reduces your code portability. The value returned has type void *. This value is a constant and can be used wherever a constant of that type is valid. For example: void *ptr; ... ptr = &&foo; To use these values, you need to be able to jump to one. This is done with the computed goto statement, goto *exp;. For example: goto *ptr; Any expression of type void * is allowed. One way of using these constants is in initializing a static array that will serve as a jump table: static void *array[] = { &&foo, &&bar, &&hack }; Then you can select a label with indexing, like this: goto *array[i]; Note: This does not check whether the subscript is in bounds. (Array indexing in C never does.) Such an array of label values serves a purpose much like that of the switch statement. The switch statement is cleaner and therefore preferable to an array. Another use of label values is in an interpreter for threaded code. The labels within the interpreter function can be stored in the threaded code for fast dispatching. This mechanism can be misused to jump to code in a different function. The compiler cannot prevent this from happening, so care must be taken to ensure that target addresses are valid for the current function. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 119 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 8.5 CONDITIONAL OPERATOR OPERANDS The middle operand in a conditional expression may be omitted. Then if the first operand is nonzero, its value is the value of the conditional expression. This is a non-standard extension to the language. Using this feature reduces your code portability. Therefore, the expression: x ? : y has the value of x if that is nonzero; otherwise, the value of y. This example is perfectly equivalent to: x ? x : y In this simple case, the ability to omit the middle operand is not especially useful. When it becomes useful is when the first operand does, or may (if it is a macro argument), contain a side effect. Then repeating the operand in the middle would perform the side effect twice. Omitting the middle operand uses the value already computed without the undesirable effects of recomputing it. 8.6 CASE RANGES You can specify a range of consecutive values in a single case label, like this: case low ... high: This has the same effect as the proper number of individual case labels, one for each integer value from low to high, inclusive. This is a non-standard extension to the language. Using this feature reduces your code portability. This feature is especially useful for ranges of ASCII character codes: case 'A' ... 'Z': Be careful: Write spaces around the ..., otherwise it may be parsed incorrectly when you use it with integer values. For example, write this: case 1 ... 5: rather than this: case 1...5: DS51686E-page 120 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Chapter 9. Register Usage 9.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter examines registers used by the compiler to generate assembly from C/C++ source code. * Register Usage * Register Conventions 9.2 REGISTER USAGE The assembly generated from C/C++ source code by the compiler will use certain registers that are present on the PIC MCU device. The compiler assumes that nothing other than code it generates can alter the contents of these registers, but an extended assembly language format can be used to indicate to the compiler registers used in assembly code so that code can be adjusted accordingly. 9.3 REGISTER CONVENTIONS The 32 general purpose registers contained in the PIC32 are shown in Table 9-1. Some of these registers are assigned a dedicated task by the compiler. The name used in assembly code and the usage is indicated. TABLE 9-1: REGISTER CONVENTIONS Register Number Software Name $0 zero $1 at $2-$3 v0-v1 Use Always 0 when read. Assembler temporary variable. Return value from functions. $4-$7 a0-a3 Used for passing arguments to functions. $8-$15 t0-t7 Temporary registers used by compiler for expression evaluation. Values not saved across function calls. $16-$23 s0-s7 Temporary registers whose values are saved across function calls. $24-$25 t8-t9 Temporary registers used by compiler for expression evaluation. Values not saved across function calls. $26-$27 k0-k1 Reserved for interrupt/trap handler. $28 gp Global Pointer. $29 sp Stack Pointer. $30 fp or s8 $31 ra 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Frame Pointer if needed. Additional temporary saved register if not. Return address for functions. DS51686E-page 121 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide NOTES: DS51686E-page 122 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Chapter 10. Functions The following sections describe how function definitions are written, and specifically how they can be customized to suit your application. The conventions used for parameters and return values, as well as the assembly call sequences are also discussed. * * * * * * * * * 10.1 Writing Functions Function Attributes and Specifiers Allocation of Function Code Changing the Default Function Allocation Function Size Limits Function Parameters Function Return Values Calling Functions Inline Functions WRITING FUNCTIONS Functions may be written in the usual way in accordance with the C/C++ language. The only specifier that has any effect on function is static. Interrupt functions are defined with the use of the interrupt attribute, see Section 10.2 "Function Attributes and Specifiers". A function defined using the static specifier only affects the scope of the function, i.e. limits the places in the source code where the function may be called. Functions that are static may only be directly called from code in the file in which the function is defined. The equivalent symbol used in assembly code to represent the function may change if the function is static, see Section 7.3.2 "Static Variables". This specifier does not change the way the function is encoded. 10.2 FUNCTION ATTRIBUTES AND SPECIFIERS 10.2.1 Function Attributes address(addr) The address attribute specifies an absolute virtual address for the function. Be sure to specify the address attribute using an appropriate virtual address for the target device. The address is typically in the range [0x9D000000,0x9D0FFFFC], as defined in the linker script as the `kseg0_program_mem' memory region. For example, __attribute__((address(0x9D008000))) void bar (void); The compiler performs no error checking on the address. The section containing the function will be located at the specified address regardless of the memory-regions specified in the linker script or the actual memory ranges on the target device. The application code must ensure that the address is valid for the target device. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 123 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide To make effective use of absolute sections and the new best-fit allocator, standard program-memory and data-memory sections should not be mapped in the linker script. The built-in linker script does not map most standard sections such as the .text, .data, .bss, or .ramfunc sections. By not mapping these sections in the linker script, we allow these sections to be allocated using the best-fit allocator rather than the sequential allocator. Sections that are unmapped in the linker script can flow around absolute sections, whereas sections that are linker-script mapped are grouped together and allocated sequentially, potentially causing conflicts with absolute sections. alias ("symbol") Indicates that the function is an alias for another symbol. For example: void foo (void) { /* stuff */ } __attribute__ ((alias("foo"))) void bar (void); Symbol bar is considered to be an alias for the symbol foo. always_inline If the function is declared inline, always inline the function, even if no optimization level was specified. at_vector Place the body of the function at the indicated exception vector address. See Chapter 11. "Interrupts" and Section 11.5 "Exception Handlers". const If a pure function determines its return value exclusively from its parameters (i.e., does not examine any global variables), it may be declared const, allowing for even more aggressive optimization. Note that a function which de-references a pointer argument is not const since the pointer de-reference uses a value which is not a parameter, even though the pointer itself is a parameter. deprecated deprecated (msg) When a function specified as deprecated is used, a warning is generated. The optional msg argument, which must be a string, will be printed in the warning if present. The deprecated attribute may also be used for variables and types. far Always invoke the function by first loading its address into a register and then using the contents of that register. This allows calling a function located beyond the 28-bit addressing range of the direct CALL instruction. format (type, format_index, first_to_check) The format attribute indicates that the function takes a printf, scanf, strftime, or strfmon style format string and arguments and that the compiler should type check those arguments against the format string, just as it does for the standard library functions. The type parameter is one of printf, scanf, strftime or strfmon (optionally with surrounding double underscores, e.g., __printf__) and determines how the format string will be interpreted. The format_index parameter specifies which function parameter is the format string. Function parameters are numbered from the left-most parameter, starting from 1. DS51686E-page 124 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Functions The first_to_check parameter specifies which parameter is the first to check against the format string. If first_to_check is zero, type checking is not performed, and the compiler only checks the format string for consistency (e.g., vfprintf). format_arg (index) The format_arg attribute specifies that a function manipulates a printf style format string and that the compiler should check the format string for consistency. The function attribute which is a format string is identified by index. interrupt (priority) Generate prologue and epilogue code for the function as an interrupt handler function. See Chapter 11. "Interrupts". The argument specifies the interrupt priority using the symbols ip1 to ip7 to represent the 7 levels of priority. longcall Functionally equivalent to far. malloc Any non-Null Pointer return value from the indicated function will not alias any other pointer which is live at the point when the function returns. This allows the compiler to improve optimization. mips16 Generate code for the function in the MIPS16 instruction set. naked Generate no prologue or epilogue code for the function. near Always invoke the function with an absolute CALL instruction, even when the -mlong-calls command line option is specified. noinline The function will never be considered for inlining. nomips16 Always generate code for the function in the MIPS32(R) instruction set, even when compiling the translation unit with the -mips16 command line option. nonnull (index, ...) Indicate to the compiler that one or more pointer arguments to the function must be non-null. If the compiler determines that a Null Pointer is passed as a value to a non-null argument, and the -Wnonnull command line option was specified, a warning diagnostic is issued. If no arguments are given to the nonnull attribute, all pointer arguments of the function are marked as non-null. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 125 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide noreturn Indicate to the compiler that the function will never return. In some situations, this can allow the compiler to generate more efficient code in the calling function since optimizations can be performed without regard to behavior if the function ever did return. Functions declared as noreturn should always have a return type of void. pure If a function has no side effects other than its return value, and the return value is dependent only on parameters and/or (nonvolatile) global variables, the compiler can perform more aggressive optimizations around invocations of that function. Such functions can be indicated with the pure attribute. ramfunc Treat the function as if it was in data memory. Allocate the function at the highest appropriately aligned address for executable code. Note that due to ramfunc alignment and placement requirements, the address attribute should not be used with the ramfunc attribute. The presence of the ramfunc section causes the linker to emit the symbols necessary for the crt0.S start-up code to initialize the bus matrix appropriately for executing code out of data memory. Use this attribute along with the far/longcall attribute and the section attribute. For example: __attribute__((ramfunc,section(".ramfunc"),far,unique_section)) unsigned int myramfunct (void_ { /* code */ } A macro in the sys/attribs.h header file makes the ramfunc attribute simple to use: #include <sys/attribs.h> __longramfunc__ unsigned int { /* code */ } myramfunct (void) section("name") Place the function into the named section. For example: void __attribute__ ((section (".wilma"))) baz () {return;} Function baz will be placed in section .wilma. The -ffunction-sections command line option has no effect on functions defined with a section attribute. unique_section Place the function in a uniquely named section, as if -ffunction-sections had been specified. If the function also has a section attribute, use that section name as the prefix for generating the unique section name. For example: void __attribute__ ((section (".fred"), unique_section) foo (void) {return;} Function foo will be placed in section .fred.foo. unused Indicate to the compiler that the function may not be used. The compiler will not issue a warning for this function if it is not used. DS51686E-page 126 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Functions used Indicate to the compiler that the function is always used and code must be generated for the function even if the compiler cannot see a reference to the function. For example, if inline assembly is the only reference to a static function. vector Generate a branch instruction at the indicated exception vector which targets the function. See Chapter 11. "Interrupts" and Section 11.5 "Exception Handlers". warn_unused_result A warning will be issued if the return value of the indicated function is unused by a caller. weak A weak symbol indicates that if another version of the same symbol is available, that version should be used instead. For example, this is useful when a library function is implemented such that it can be overridden by a user written function. 10.3 ALLOCATION OF FUNCTION CODE Code associated with C/C++ functions is normally always placed in the program Flash memory of the target device. Functions may be located in and executed from RAM rather than Flash by using the __ramfunc__ and __longramfunc__ macros. Functions specified as a RAM function will be copied to RAM by the start-up code and all calls to those functions will reference the RAM location. Functions located in RAM will be in a different 512MB memory segment than functions located in program memory, so the longcall attribute should be applied to any RAM function, which will be called from a function not in RAM. The __longramfunc__ macro will apply the longcall attribute as well as place the function in RAM1. #include <sys/attribs.h> /* function `foo' will be placed in RAM */ void __ramfunc__ foo (void) { } /* function `bar' will be placed in RAM and will be invoked using the full 32 bit address */ void __longramfunc__ bar (void) { } 10.4 CHANGING THE DEFAULT FUNCTION ALLOCATION The assembly code associated with a C/C++ function can be placed at an absolute address. This can be accomplished by using the address attribute and specifying the virtual address of the function, see Section 6.12 "Variable Attributes". Functions can also be placed at specific positions by placing them in a user-defined section and then linking this section at an appropriate address, see Section 6.12 "Variable Attributes". __longramfunc__ is functionally equivalent to specifying both __ramfunc__ and __longcall__. 1. Specifying 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 127 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 10.5 FUNCTION SIZE LIMITS There are no theoretical limits as to how large functions can be made. 10.6 FUNCTION PARAMETERS MPLAB XC uses a fixed convention to pass arguments to a function. The method used to pass the arguments depends on the size and number of arguments involved. Note: The names "argument" and "parameter" are often used interchangeably, but typically an argument is the actual value that is passed to the function and a parameter is the variable defined by the function to store the argument. The Stack Pointer is always aligned on an 8-byte boundary. * All integer types smaller than a 32-bit integer are first converted to a 32-bit value. The first four 32 bits of arguments are passed via registers a0-a3 (see Table 10-1 for how many registers are required for each data type). * Although some arguments may be passed in registers, space is still allocated on the stack for all arguments to be passed to a function (see Figure 10-1). Application code should not assume that the current argument value is on the stack, even when space is allocated. * When calling a function: - Registers a0-a3 are used for passing arguments to functions. Values in these registers are not preserved across function calls. - Registers t0-t7 and t8-t9 are caller saved registers. The calling function must push these values onto the stack for the registers' values to be saved. - Registers s0-s7 are called saved registers. The function being called must save any of these registers it modifies. - Register s8 is a saved register if the optimizer eliminates its use as the Frame Pointer. s8 is a reserved register otherwise. - Register ra contains the return address of a function call. TABLE 10-1: REGISTERS REQUIRED Data Type DS51686E-page 128 Number of Registers Required char 1 short 1 int 1 long 1 long long 2 float 1 double 1 long double 2 structure Up to 4, depending on the size of the struct. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Functions FIGURE 10-1: PASSING ARGUMENTS Example 1: int add (int, int) a= add (5, 10); SP + 4 SP a0 undefined undefined a1 5 10 Example 2: void foo (long double, long double) call= foo (10.5, 20.1); SP + 12 undefined SP + 8 a0 10.5 a1 SP + 4 a2 undefined 20.1 a3 SP Example 3: void calculate (long double, long double, int) calculate (50.3, 100.0, .10); .10 SP + 16 SP + 12 undefined SP + 8 undefined 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. 50.3 a1 SP + 4 SP a0 a2 100.0 a3 DS51686E-page 129 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 10.7 FUNCTION RETURN VALUES Function return values are returned in registers. If a function needs to return an actual structure or union -- not a pointer to such an object -- the called function copies this object to an area of memory that is reserved by the caller. The caller passes the address of this memory area in register $4 when the function is called. The function also returns a pointer to the returned object in register v0. Having the caller supply the return object's space allows re-entrance. 10.8 CALLING FUNCTIONS By default, functions are called using the direct form of the call (jal) instruction. This allows calls to destinations within a 256 MB segment. This operation can be changed through the use of attributes applied to functions or command-line options so that a longer, but unrestricted, call is made. The -mlong-calls option, see Section 3.9.1 "Options Specific to PIC32MX Devices", forces a register form of the call to be employed by default. Generated code is longer, but calls are not limited in terms of the destination address. The attributes longcall or far can be used with a function definition to always enforce the longer call sequence for that function. The near attribute can be used with a function so that calls to it use the shorter direct call, even if the -mlong-calls option is in force. 10.9 INLINE FUNCTIONS By declaring a function inline, you can direct the compiler to integrate that function's code into the code for its callers. This usually makes execution faster by eliminating the function-call overhead. In addition, if any of the actual argument values are constant, their known values may permit simplifications at compile time, so that not all of the inline function's code needs to be included. The effect on code size is less predictable. Machine code may be larger or smaller with inline functions, depending on the particular case. Note: Function inlining will only take place when the function's definition is visible (not just the prototype). In order to have a function inlined into more than one source file, the function definition may be placed into a header file that is included by each of the source files. To declare a function inline, use the inline keyword in its declaration, like this: inline int inc (int *a) { (*a)++; } (If you are using the -traditional option or the -ansi option, write __inline__ instead of inline.) You can also make all "simple enough" functions inline with the command-line option -finline-functions. The compiler heuristically decides which functions are simple enough to be worth integrating in this way, based on an estimate of the function's size. Note: DS51686E-page 130 The inline keyword will only be recognized with -finline or optimizations enabled. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Functions Certain usages in a function definition can make it unsuitable for inline substitution. Among these usages are: use of varargs, use of alloca, use of variable-sized data, use of computed goto and use of nonlocal goto. Using the command-line option -Winline will warn when a function marked inline could not be substituted, and will give the reason for the failure. In compiler syntax, the inline keyword does not affect the linkage of the function. When a function is both inline and static, if all calls to the function are integrated into the caller and the function's address is never used, then the function's own assembler code is never referenced. In this case, the compiler does not actually output assembler code for the function, unless you specify the command-line option -fkeep-inline-functions. Some calls cannot be integrated for various reasons (in particular, calls that precede the function's definition cannot be integrated and neither can recursive calls within the definition). If there is a nonintegrated call, then the function is compiled to assembler code as usual. The function must also be compiled as usual if the program refers to its address, because that can't be inlined. The compiler will only eliminate inline functions if they are declared to be static and if the function definition precedes all uses of the function. When an inline function is not static, then the compiler must assume that there may be calls from other source files. Since a global symbol can be defined only once in any program, the function must not be defined in the other source files, so the calls therein cannot be integrated. Therefore, a non-static inline function is always compiled on its own in the usual fashion. If you specify both inline and extern in the function definition, then the definition is used only for inlining. In no case is the function compiled on its own, not even if you refer to its address explicitly. Such an address becomes an external reference, as if you had only declared the function and had not defined it. This combination of inline and extern has a similar effect to a macro. Put a function definition in a header file with these keywords and put another copy of the definition (lacking inline and extern) in a library file. The definition in the header file will cause most calls to the function to be inlined. If any uses of the function remain, they will refer to the single copy in the library. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 131 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide NOTES: DS51686E-page 132 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Chapter 11. Interrupts 11.1 INTRODUCTION Interrupt processing is an important aspect of most microcontroller applications. Interrupts may be used to synchronize software operations with events that occur in real time. When interrupts occur, the normal flow of software execution is suspended, and special functions are invoked to process the event. At the completion of interrupt processing, previous context information is restored and normal execution resumes. PIC32MX devices support multiple interrupts, from both internal and external sources. The devices allow high-priority interrupts to override any lower priority interrupts that may be in progress. The compiler provides full support for interrupt processing in C/C++ or inline assembly code. This chapter presents an overview of interrupt processing. * * * * * * * * * 11.2 Interrupt Operation Writing an Interrupt Service Routine Associating a Handler Function with an Exception Vector Exception Handlers Interrupt Service Routine Context Switching Latency Nesting Interrupts Enabling/Disabling Interrupts ISR Considerations INTERRUPT OPERATION The compiler incorporates features allowing interrupts to be fully handled from C/C++ code. Interrupt functions are often called interrupt handlers or Interrupt Service Routines (ISRs). Each interrupt source typically has a control bit in an SFR which can disable that interrupt source. Check your device data sheet for full information how your device handles interrupts. Interrupt code is the name given to any code that executes as a result of an interrupt occurring. Interrupt code completes at the point where the corresponding return from interrupt instruction is executed. This contrasts with main-line code, which, for a freestanding application, is usually the main part of the program that executes after reset. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 133 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 11.3 WRITING AN INTERRUPT SERVICE ROUTINE An interrupt handler function is different to an ordinary function in that it handles the context save and restore to ensure that upon return from interrupt, the program context is maintained.A different code sequence is used to return from these functions as well. Several attributes can be used to ensure that the compiler generates the correct code for an ISR. Macros are provided so that this is easier to accomplish, see the following sections. There are several actions that the compiler needs to take to generate an interrupt service routine. The compiler has to be told to use an alternate form of return code. The function also needs to be linked to the interrupt vector. Only the mip32 instruction set can be used in ISRs, so the compiler must be told to generate code using this instruction set, even if the option to generate mip16 instructions has been used. An interrupt function must be declared as type void and may not have parameters. This is the only function prototype that makes sense for an interrupt function since they are never directly called in the source code. Interrupt functions must not be called directly from C/C++ code (due to the different return instruction that is used), but they themselves may call other functions, both user-defined and library functions, but be aware that this may use additional registers which will need to be saved and restored by the context switch code. A function is marked as an interrupt handler function (also known as an Interrupt Service Routine or ISR) via either the interrupt attribute or the interrupt pragma1. While each method is functionally equivalent to the other, the interrupt attribute is more commonly used and therefore the recommended method. The interrupt is specified as handling interrupts of a specific priority level or for operating in single vector mode. 11.3.1 Interrupt Attribute __attribute__((interrupt([IPLn[SRS|SOFT|AUTO]]))) Where n is in the range of 0..7, inclusive. Use the interrupt attribute to indicate that the specified function is an interrupt handler. The compiler generates function entry and exit sequences suitable for use in an interrupt handler when this attribute is present. The generated code preserves context by either using a shadow register set (SRS) or using generated software instructions (SOFT) to push context onto the stack. See Example 11-1 for an interrupt attribute. EXAMPLE 11-1: INTERRUPT ATTRIBUTE void __attribute__((interrupt(IPL7SRS))) bambam (void); Many PIC32 devices allow us to specify, via configuration-bit settings, which interrupt priority level will use the shadow register set (e.g., #pragma config FSRSSEL=PRIORITY_7). Refer to the device data sheet to determine if your PIC32 target device supports this feature. This means we must specify which context-saving mechanism to use for each interrupt handler. The compiler will generate interrupt function prologue and epilogue code utilizing shadow register context saving for the IPLnSRS Interrupt Priority Level (IPL) specifier. It will use software context saving for the IPLnSOFT IPL specifier. Note: Application code is responsible for applying the correct value to the matching handler routine. 1. Note that pre-processor macros are not expanded in pragma directives. DS51686E-page 134 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Interrupts The compiler also supports an IPLnAUTO IPL specifier that uses the run-time value in SRSCTL to determine whether it should use software or SRS context-saving code. The compiler defaults to using IPLnAUTO when the IPL specifier is omitted from the interrupt() attribute. For devices that do not support a shadow register set for interrupt context saving, use IPLnSOFT for all interrupt handlers. Note: 11.3.2 Note: SRS has the shortest latency and SOFT has a longer latency due to registers saved on the stack. AUTO adds a few cycles to test if SRS or SOFT should be used. Interrupt Pragma The interrupt pragma is provided only for compatibility when porting code from other compilers. The interrupt function attribute is the preferred and more common way to write an interrupt service routine. # pragma interrupt function-name IPLn[AUTO|SOFT|SRS] [vector [@]vector-number [, vector-number-list]] # pragma interrupt function-name single [vector [@] 0 Where n is in the range of 0..7, inclusive. The IPLn [AUTO|SOFT|SRS] IPL specifier may be all uppercase or all lowercase. The function definition for a handler function indicated by an interrupt pragma must follow in the same translation unit as the pragma itself. The interrupt attribute will also indicate that a function definition is an interrupt handler. It is functionally equivalent to the interrupt pragma. For example, the definitions of foo below both indicate that it is an interrupt handler function for an interrupt of priority 4 that uses software context saving. #pragma interrupt foo IPL4SOFT void foo (void) is functionally equivalent to void __attribute__ ((interrupt(IPL4SOFT))) foo (void) 11.3.3 __ISR Macros The <sys/attribs.h> header file provides macros intended to simplify the application of attributes to interrupt functions. There are also vector macros defined in the processor header files. (See the appropriate header file in the compiler's /pic32mx/include/proc directory.) * __ISR(V, IPL) * __ISR_AT_VECTOR(v, IPL) * Interrupt-Vector Macros 11.3.3.1 __ISR(V, IPL) Use the __ISR(v, IPL) macro to assign the vector-number location and associate it with the specified IPL. This will place a jump to the interrupt handler at the associated vector location. This macro also applies the nomips16 attribute since PIC32MX devices require that interrupt handlers must use the MIPS32 instruction set. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 135 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide EXAMPLE 11-2: CORE TIMER VECTOR, IPL2SOFT #include <xc.h> #include <sys/attribs.h> void __ISR(_CORE_TIMER_VECTOR, IPL2SOFT) CoreTimerHandler(void); Example 11-2 creates an interrupt handler function for the core timer interrupt that has an interrupt priority level of two. The compiler places a dispatch function at the associated vector location. To reach this function, the core timer interrupt flag and enable bits must be set, and the interrupt priority should be set to a level of two. The compiler generates software context-saving code for this handler function. EXAMPLE 11-3: CORE SOFTWARE 0 VECTOR, IPL3SRS #include <xc.h> #include <sys/attribs.h> void __ISR(_CORE_SOFTWARE_0_VECTOR,IPL3SRS) CoreSoftwareInt0Handler(void); Example 11-3 creates an interrupt handler function for the core software interrupt 0 that has an interrupt priority level of three. The compiler places a dispatch function at the associated vector location. To reach this function, the core software interrupt flag and enable bits must be set, and the interrupt priority should be set to a level of three. The device configuration fuses must assign Shadow Register Set 1 to interrupt priority level three. The compiler generates code that assumes that register context will be saved in SRS1. EXAMPLE 11-4: CORE SOFTWARE 1 VECTOR, IPL0AUTO #include <xc.h> #include <sys/attribs.h> void __ISR(_CORE_SOFTWARE_1_VECTOR, IPL0AUTO) CoreSoftwareInt1Handler(void); Example 11-4 creates an interrupt handler function for the core software interrupt 1 that has an interrupt priority level of zero. The compiler places a dispatch function at the associated vector location. To reach this function, the core software interrupt 1 flag and enable bits must be set, and the interrupt priority should be set to a level of zero. The compiler generates code that determines at run time whether software context saving is required. EXAMPLE 11-5: CORE SOFTWARE 1 VECTOR, DEFAULT #include <xc.h> #include <sys/attribs.h> void __ISR(_CORE_SOFTWARE_1_VECTOR) _CoreSoftwareInt1Handler(void); Example 11-5 is functionally equivalent to Example 3. Because the IPL specifier is omitted, the compiler assumes IPL0AUTO. 11.3.3.2 __ISR_AT_VECTOR(v, IPL) Use the __ISR_AT_VECTOR(v, IPL) to place the entire interrupt handler at the vector location and associate it with the software-assigned interrupt priority. Application code is responsible for making sure that the vector spacing is set to accommodate the size of the handler. This macro also applies the nomips16 attribute since ISR functions are required to be MIPS32. DS51686E-page 136 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Interrupts EXAMPLE 11-6: CORE TIMER VECTOR, IPL2SOFT #include <xc.h> #include <sys/attribs.h> void __ISR_AT_VECTOR(_CORE_TIMER_VECTOR, IPL2SOFT) CoreTimerHandler(void); Example 11-6 creates an interrupt handler function for the core timer interrupt that has an interrupt priority level of two. The compiler places the entire interrupt handler at the vector location. It does not use a dispatch function. To reach this function, the core timer interrupt flag and enable bits must be set, and the interrupt priority should be set to a level of two. The compiler generates software context-saving code for this handler function. 11.3.3.3 INTERRUPT-VECTOR MACROS Each processor-support header file provides a macro for each interrupt-vector number (for example, /pic32mx/include/proc/p32mx360f512l.h. See the appropriate header file in the compiler install directory). When used in conjunction with the __ISR() macro provided by the sys\attribs.h header file, these macros help make an Interrupt Service Routine easier to write and maintain. EXAMPLE 11-7: INTERRUPT-VECTOR WITH HANDLER #include <xc.h> #include <sys/attribs.h> void __ISR (_TIMER_1_VECTOR, IPL7SRS) Timer1Handler (void); Example 11-7 creates an interrupt handler function for the Timer 1 interrupt that has an interrupt priority level of seven. The compiler places a dispatch function at the vector location associated with macro _TIMER_1_VECTOR as defined in the device-specific header file. To reach this function, the Timer 1 interrupt flag and enable bits must be set, and the interrupt priority should be set to a level of seven. For devices that allow assignment of shadow registers to specific IPL values, the device Configuration bit settings must assign Shadow Register Set 1 to interrupt priority level seven. The compiler generates code that assumes that register context will be saved in SRS1. Example 11-8 uses the peripheral library provided with the compiler to set up Timer 1 for an interrupt using priority level 7. The code is written to toggle pin RD0. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 137 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide EXAMPLE 11-8: FULL TIMER 1 EXAMPLE WITH PERIPHERAL LIBRARY /* Blink an LED on the PIC32MX Ethernet Starter Kit using the * PIC32MX795F512L target device. */ #include <xc.h> #include <plib.h> #include <sys/attribs.h> // Configuration Bit settings using the config pragma // SYSCLK = 80 MHz (8MHz Crystal/ FPLLIDIV * FPLLMUL / FPLLODIV) // PBCLK = 10 MHz // Primary Osc w/PLL (XT+,HS+,EC+PLL) // WDT OFF // Other options are "do not care" // #pragma config FPLLMUL=MUL_20, FPLLIDIV=DIV_2, FPLLODIV=DIV_1, FWDTEN=OFF #pragma config POSCMOD=HS, FNOSC=PRIPLL, FPBDIV=DIV_8 // Calculate the PR1 (period) at compile time #define SYS_FREQ (80000000L) #define PB_DIV 8 #define PRESCALE 256 #define TOGGLES_PER_SEC 1 #define T1_TICK (SYS_FREQ/PB_DIV/PRESCALE/TOGGLES_PER_SEC) int main(void) { // STEP 1 // Configure the device for maximum performance but do not change the PBDIV // Given the options, this function will change the flash wait states, RAM // wait state and enable prefetch cache but will not change the PBDIV. // The PBDIV value is already set via the config pragma FPBDIV option above. SYSTEMConfig(SYS_FREQ, SYS_CFG_WAIT_STATES | SYS_CFG_PCACHE); //~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ // STEP 2. configure Timer 1 using internal clock, 1:256 prescale OpenTimer1(T1_ON | T1_SOURCE_INT | T1_PS_1_256, T1_TICK); // set up the timer interrupt with a priority of 7 ConfigIntTimer1(T1_INT_ON | T1_INT_PRIOR_7); // enable multi-vector interrupts INTEnableSystemMultiVectoredInt(); // configure PORTDbits.RD0 = output mPORTDSetPinsDigitalOut(BIT_0); while(1); } //~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ // STEP 3. configure the Timer 1 interrupt handler // Determine shadow-register or software-stack context saving at // runtime by using the IPL7AUTO priority specifier. // Note that the n value in IPLnAUTO _must_ match the priority // of the timer1 interrupt source configured above. #ifdef __cplusplus // For C linkage when compiling for C++ extern "C" { #endif /* __cplusplus */ DS51686E-page 138 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Interrupts void __ISR(_TIMER_1_VECTOR, IPL7AUTO) Timer1Handler(void) { // clear the interrupt flag mT1ClearIntFlag(); // .. things to do // .. in this case, toggle the LED mPORTDToggleBits(BIT_0); } #ifdef __cplusplus } #endif 11.4 ASSOCIATING A HANDLER FUNCTION WITH AN EXCEPTION VECTOR For PIC32MX devices, there are 64 exception vectors, numbered 0..63 inclusive. Each interrupt source is mapped to an exception vector as specified in the device data sheet. By default, four words of space are reserved at each vector address for a dispatch to the handler function for that exception source. An interrupt handler function can be associated with an interrupt vector either as the target of a dispatch function located at the exception vector address, or as being located directly at the exception vector address. A single handler function can be the target of multiple dispatch functions. The association of a handler function to one or more exception vector addresses is specified via a vector attribute on the function declaration. For compatibility purposes, you may also associate a handler function to a vector address using a clause of the interrupt pragma, a separate vector pragma, or a vector attribute on the function declaration. 11.4.1 Vector Attribute A handler function can be associated with one or more exception vector addresses via an attribute. The at_vector attribute indicates that the handler function should itself be placed at the exception vector address. The vector attribute indicates that a dispatch function should be created at the exception vector address(es) which will transfer control to the handler function. For example, the following declaration specifies that function foo will be created as an interrupt handler function of priority four. foo will be located at the address of exception vector 54. void __attribute__ ((interrupt(IPL4SOFT))) __attribute__ ((at_vector(54))) foo (void) The following declaration specifies that function foo will be created as an interrupt handler function of priority four. Define dispatch functions targeting foo at exception vector addresses 52 and 53. void __attribute__ ((interrupt(IPL4SOFT))) __attribute__ ((vector(53, 52))) foo (void) Handler functions that are linked directly to the vector will be executed faster. Although the vector spacing can be adjusted, there is limited space between vectors and linking a substantial handler function directly at a vector may cause it to overlap the higher vector locations, preventing their use. In such situations, using a dispatch function is a safer option. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 139 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 11.4.2 Note: Interrupt Pragma Clause The interrupt pragma and its vector clause are provided only for compatibility when porting code from other compilers. The vector function attribute is the preferred way to associate a handler function to an exception vector address. The interrupt pragma has an optional vector clause following the priority specifier. # pragma interrupt function-name IPL-specifier [vector [@]vector-number [, vector-number-list]] A dispatch function targeting the specified handler function will be created at the exception vector address for the specified vector numbers. If the first vector number is specified with a preceding "@" symbol, the handler function itself will be located there directly. For example, the following pragma specifies that function foo will be created as an interrupt handler function of priority four. foo will be located at the address of exception vector 54. A dispatch function targeting foo will be created at exception vector address 34. #pragma interrupt foo IPL4AUTO vector @54, 34 The following pragma specifies that function bar will be created as an interrupt handler function of priority five. bar will be located in general purpose program memory (.text section). A dispatch function targeting bar will be created at exception vector address 23. #pragma interrupt bar IPL5SOFT vector 23 11.4.3 Note: Vector Pragma The vector pragma is provided only for compatibility when porting code from other compilers. The vector function attribute is the preferred way to associate a handler function to an exception vector address. The vector pragma creates one or more dispatch functions targeting the indicated function. For target functions specified with the interrupt pragma, this functions as if the vector clause had been used. The target function of a vector pragma can be any function, including external functions implemented in assembly or by other means. # pragma vector function-name vector vector-number [, vector-number-list] The following pragma defines a dispatch function targeting foo at exception vector address 54. #pragma vector foo 54 DS51686E-page 140 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Interrupts 11.5 EXCEPTION HANDLERS The PIC32MX devices also have two exception vectors for non-interrupt exceptions. These exceptions are grouped into bootstrap exceptions and general exceptions. 11.5.1 Bootstrap Exception A reset exception is any exception which occurs while bootstrap code is running (StatusBEV=1). All reset exceptions are vectored to 0xBFC00380. At this location, the 32-bit toolchain places a branch instruction targeting a function named _bootstrap_exception_handler(). In the standard library, a default weak version of this function is provided which merely goes into an infinite loop. If the user application provides an implementation of _bootstrap_exception_handler(), that implementation will be used instead. 11.5.2 General Exception A general exception is any non-interrupt exception which occurs during program execution outside of bootstrap code (StatusBEV=0). General exceptions are vectored to offset 0x180 from EBase. At this location, the 32-bit toolchain places a branch instruction targeting a function named _general_exception_context(). The provided implementation of this function saves context, calls an application handler function, restores context and performs a return from the exception instruction. The context saved is the hi and lo registers and all General Purpose Registers except s0-s8, which are defined to be preserved by all called functions and so are not necessary to actively save here again. The values of the Cause and Status registers are passed to the application handler function (_general_exception_handler()). If the user application provides an implementation of _general_exception_context(), that implementation will be used instead. void _general_exception_handler (unsigned cause, unsigned status); A weak default implementation of _general_exception_handler() is provided in the standard library which merely goes into an infinite loop. If the user application provides an implementation of _general_exception_handler(), that implementation will be used instead. 11.6 INTERRUPT SERVICE ROUTINE CONTEXT SWITCHING The standard calling convention for C/C++ functions will already preserve zero, s0-s7, gp, sp, and fp. k0 and k1 are used by the compiler to access and preserve non-GPR context, but are always accessed atomically (i.e., in sequences with global interrupts disabled), so they need not be preserved actively. A handler function will actively preserve the a0-a3, t0-t9, v0, v1 and ra registers in addition to the standard registers. An interrupt handler function will also actively save and restore processor status registers that are utilized by the handler function. Specifically, the EPC, SR, hi and lo registers are preserved as context. Handler functions may use a shadow register set to preserve the General Purpose Registers, enabling lower latency entry into the application code of the handler function. On some devices, the shadow register set is assigned to an interrupt priority level (IPL) using the device Configuration bit settings (e.g., #pragma config FSRSSEL=PRIORITY_6). While on other devices, the shadow register set may be hard wired to IPL7. Consult the target device's data sheet for more information on the shadow register set. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 141 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 11.6.1 Context Restoration Any objects saved by software are automatically restored by software before the interrupt function returns. The order of restoration is the reverse to that used when context is saved. 11.7 LATENCY There are two elements that affect the number of cycles between the time the interrupt source occurs and the execution of the first instruction of your ISR code. These are: * Processor Servicing of Interrupt - The amount of time it takes the processor to recognize the interrupt and branch to the first address of the interrupt vector. To determine this value, refer to the processor data sheet for the specific processor and interrupt source being used. * ISR Code - The compiler saves the registers that were used by the ISR. This includes the TODO registers. Moreover, if the ISR calls an ordinary function, then the compiler will save all the working registers, even if they are not all used explicitly in the ISR itself. This must be done, because the compiler cannot know, in general, which resources are used by the called function. 11.8 NESTING INTERRUPTS Interrupts may be nested. The interrupt priority scheme implemented in the PIC32 architecture allows you to specify which interrupt sources may be interruptible by others. See your device data sheet for explicit details on interrupt operation. 11.9 ENABLING/DISABLING INTERRUPTS Macros are available in the PIC32 peripheral library to control aspects of interrupt operation. See the Microchip PIC32MX Peripheral Library documentation for more information. 11.10 ISR CONSIDERATIONS There are few issues arising with interrupt functions. As with all compilers, limiting the number of registers used by the interrupt function, or any functions called by the interrupt function, may result in less context switch code being generated and executed by the compiler, see Section 11.7 "Latency". Keeping interrupt functions small and simple will help you achieve this. DS51686E-page 142 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Chapter 12. Main, Runtime Start-up and Reset 12.1 INTRODUCTION When creating C/C++ code, there are elements that are required to ensure proper program operation: a main function must be present; start-up code will be needed to initialize and clear variables and setup registers and the processor; and reset conditions will need to be handled. * The Main Function * Runtime Start-up Code * The On Reset Routine 12.2 THE MAIN FUNCTION The identifier main is special. It must be used as the name of a function that will be the first function to execute in a program. You must always have one and only one function called main in your programs. Code associated with main, however, is not the first code to execute after reset. Additional code provided by the compiler and known as the runtime start-up code is executed first and is responsible for transferring control to the main() function. 12.3 RUNTIME START-UP CODE A C/C++ program requires certain objects to be initialized and the processor to be in a particular state before it can begin execution of its function main(). It is the job of the runtime start-up code to perform these tasks. The runtime start-up code is executed before main(), but if you require any special initialization to be performed immediately after reset, you should use on reset feature described in Section 12.4 "The On Reset Routine" The PIC32MX start-up code must perform the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Jump to NMI Handler if an NMI Occurred Initialize Stack Pointer and Heap Initialize Global Pointer Initialize or Clear Variables and RAM Functions Using the Data-Initialization Template Initialize Bus Matrix Registers Call "On Bootstrap" Procedure Change Location of Exception Vectors For C++, call the C++ initialization code to invoke all constructors for file-scope static storage objects Call Main The following provisions are made regarding the run-time model: * Kernel mode only * KSEG1 only * RAM functions are attributed with __ramfunc__ or __longramfunc__, (defined in sys/attribs.h) meaning that all RAM functions end up in the .ramfunc section and the function is ramfunc attributed. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 143 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 12.3.1 Jump to NMI Handler if an NMI Occurred If an NMI caused entry to the Reset vector, a jump to an NMI handler procedure (_nmi_handler) occurs. A weak version of the NMI handler procedure is provided that performs an ERET. The _nmi_handler function must be attributed with nomips16 [e.g., __attribute__((nomips16))] since the start-up code jumps to this function. 12.3.2 Initialize Stack Pointer and Heap The Stack Pointer (sp) register must be initialized in the start-up code. To enable the start-up code to initialize the sp register, the linker script must initialize a variable which points to the end of KSEG1 data memory1. This variable is named _stack. The user can change the minimum amount of stack space allocated by providing the command line option --defsym _min_stack_size=N to the linker. _min_stack_size is provided by the linker script with a default value of 1024. On a similar note, the user may wish to utilize a heap with their application. While the start-up code does not need to initialize the heap, the standard C libraries (sbrk) must be made aware of the heap location and its size. The linker script creates a variable to identify the beginning of the heap. The location of the heap is the end of the utilized KSEG1 data memory. This variable is named _heap. The user can change the minimum amount of heap space allocated by providing the command line option --defsym _min_heap_size=M to the linker. _min_heap_size is provided by the linker script with a default value of 0. If the heap is used when the heap size is set to zero, the behavior is the same as when the heap usage exceeds the minimum heap size. Namely, it overflows into the space allocated for the stack. The heap and the stack use the unallocated KSEG1 data memory, with the heap starting from a low address in KSEG1 data memory, and growing upwards towards the stack while the stack starts at a higher address in KSEG1 data memory and grows downwards towards the heap. The linker attempt to allocate the heap and stack together in the largest gap of memory available in the KSEG1 data memory region. If enough space is not available based on the minimum amount of heap size and stack size requested, the linker issues an error. 1. The end of data memory is different based on whether RAM functions exist. If RAM functions exist, then part of the DRM must be configured for the kernel program to contain the RAM functions, and the Stack Pointer is located one word prior to the beginning of the DRM kernel program boundary address. If RAM functions do not exist, then the Stack Pointer is located at the true end of DRM. DS51686E-page 144 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Main, Runtime Start-up and Reset FIGURE 12-1: STACK AND HEAP LAYOUT FIGURE 12-2: STACK AND HEAP LAYOUT WITH RAM FUNCTIONS 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 145 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 12.3.3 Initialize Global Pointer The compiler toolchain supports Global Pointer (gp) relative addressing. Loads and stores to data residing within 32KB of either side of the address stored in the gp register can be performed in a single instruction using the gp register as the base register. Without the Global Pointer, loading data from a static memory area takes two instructions - one to load the Most Significant bits of the 32-bit constant address computed by the compiler/linker and one to do the data load. To utilize gp-relative addressing, the compiler and assembler must group all of the "small" variables and constants into one of the following sections: * .lit4. * lit8 * .sdata. * sbss * .sdata.* * sbss.* * .gnu.linkonce.s.* * .gnu.linkonce.sb.* The linker must then group all of the above input sections together. This grouping is handled by the default linker script. The run-time start-up code must initialize the gp register to point to the "middle" of this output section. To enable the start-up code to initialize the gp register, the linker script must initialize a variable which is 32 KB from the start of the output section containing the "small" variables and constants. This variable is named _gp (to match core linker scripts). Besides being initialized in the standard GPR set, the Global Pointer must also be initialized in the register shadow set. FIGURE 12-3: DS51686E-page 146 GLOBAL POINTER LOCATION 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Main, Runtime Start-up and Reset 12.3.4 Initialize or Clear Variables and RAM Functions Using the Data-Initialization Template Those non-auto objects which are not initialized must be cleared before execution of the program begins. This task is also performed by the runtime start-up code. Uninitialized variables are those which are not auto objects and which are not assigned a value in their definition, for example output in the following example: int output; int main(void) { ... Such uninitialized objects will only require space to be reserved in RAM where they will reside and be accessed during program execution (runtime). There are two uninitialized data sections--.sbss and .bss. The .sbss section is a data segment containing uninitialized variables less than or equal to n bytes where n is determined by the -Gn command line option. The .bss section is a data segment containing uninitialized variables not included in .sbss. Another task of the runtime start-up code is to ensure that any initialized variables contain their initial value before the program begins execution. Initialized variables are those which are not auto objects and which are assigned an initial value in their definition, for example input in the following example: int input = 88; int main(void) { ... Such initialized objects have two components: their initial value (0x0088 in the above example) stored in program memory (i.e. placed in the HEX file), and space for the variable reserved in RAM, which will reside and be accessed during program execution (runtime). The runtime start-up code will copy all the blocks of initial values from program memory to RAM so the variables will contain the correct values before main is executed. Since auto objects are dynamically created, they require code to be positioned in the function in which they are defined to perform their initialization. It is possible that the initial value of an auto object may change on each instance of the function and so the initial values cannot be stored in program memory and copied. As a result, initialized auto objects are not considered by the runtime start-up code, but are instead initialized by assembly code in each function output. Note: Initialized auto variables can impact code performance, particularly if the objects are large in size. Consider using global or static objects instead. Variables whose contents should be preserved over a reset, or even power off, should be qualified with the persistent attribute, see Section 6.10 "Standard Type Qualifiers". Such variables are linked at a different area of memory and are not altered by the runtime start-up code in any way. Four initialized data sections exist:.sdata, .data, .lit4, and .lit8. The .sdata section is a data segment containing initialized variables less than or equal to n bytes where n is determined by the -Gn command line option. The .data section is a data segment containing initialized variables not included in .sdata. The .lit4 and .lit8 sections contain constants, which the assembler stores in memory rather than in the instruction stream. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 147 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide In order to clear or initialize these sections, the linker creates a data-initialization template, which is loaded into an output section named .dinit. The linker creates this special .dinit section, allocated in program memory, to hold the template for the run-time initialization of data. The C/C++ start-up module, crt0.o, interprets this template and copies initial data values into initialized data sections. This includes sections containing ramfunc attributed functions. Other data sections (such as .bss) are cleared before the main() function is called. The persistent data section (.pbss) is not affected. When the application's main program takes control, all variables and RAM functions in data memory have been initialized. The data initialization template contains one record for each output section in data memory. The template is terminated by a null instruction word. The format of a data initialization record is: /* data init record */ struct data_record { char *dst; unsigned int len; unsigned int format; char dat[0]; }; /* /* /* /* destination address length in bytes format code variable-length data */ */ */ */ The first element of the record is a pointer to the section in data memory. The second and third elements are the section length and format code, respectively. The last element is an optional array of data bytes. For bss-type sections, no data bytes are required. Currently supported format codes are: * 0 - Fill the output section with zeros * 1 - Copy each byte of data from the data array 12.3.5 Initialize Bus Matrix Registers The bus matrix registers (BMXDKPBA, BMXDUDBA, BMXDUPBA) should be initialized by the start-up code if any RAM functions exist; otherwise, these registers should not be modified. To determine whether any RAM functions exist in the application, the linker provides a variable that contains the length of the .ramfunc section1. This variable is named _ramfunc_length. In addition, the linker provides a 2K-aligned variable required for the boundary register (BMXDKPBA). The variable is named _bmxdkpba_address. The default linker script also provides two variables that contain the address of the bus matrix registers. These variables are named _bmxdkpba_address, _bmxdudba_address, and _bmxdupba_address. The following calculations are used to calculate these addresses: _bmxdudba_address = LENGTH(${DATA_MEMORY_LOCATION}) ; _bmxdupba_address = LENGTH(${DATA_MEMORY_LOCATION}) ; The linker ensures that RAM functions are aligned to a 2K alignment boundary as is required by the BMXDKPBA register. 1. All functions attributed with .ramfunc section. DS51686E-page 148 __ramfunc__ or __longramfunc__ are placed in the 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Main, Runtime Start-up and Reset FIGURE 12-4: BUS MATRIX INITIALIZATION 12.3.5.1 INITIALIZE CP0 REGISTERS The CP0 registers are initialized in the following order: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Count register Compare register EBase register IntCtl register Cause register Status register 12.3.5.2 HARDWARE ENABLE REGISTER (HWREna - CP0 REGISTER 7, SELECT 0) This register contains a bit mask that determines which hardware registers are accessible via the RDHWR instruction. Privileged software may determine which of the hardware registers are accessible by the RDHWR instruction. In doing so, a register may be virtualized at the cost of handling a Reserved Instruction Exception, interpreting the instruction, and returning the virtualized value. For example, if it is not desirable to provide direct access to the Count register, access to the register may be individually disabled, and the return value can be virtualized by the operating system. No initialization is performed on this register in the PIC32MX start-up code. 12.3.5.3 BAD VIRTUAL ADDRESS REGISTER (BadVAddr - CP0 REGISTER 8, SELECT 0) This register is a read-only register that captures the most recent virtual address that caused an Address Error exception (AdEL or AdES). No initialization is performed on this register in the PIC32MX start-up code. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 149 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 12.3.5.4 COUNT REGISTER (Count - CP0 REGISTER 9, SELECT 0) This register acts as a timer, incrementing at a constant rate, whether or not an instruction is executed, retired, or any forward progress is made through the pipeline. The counter increments every other clock if the DC bit in the Cause register is `0'. The Count register can be written for functional or diagnostic purposes, including at Reset or to synchronize processors. By writing the CountDM bit in the Debug register, it is possible to control whether the Count register continues incrementing while the processor is in Debug mode. This register is cleared in the PIC32MX start-up code. 12.3.5.5 COMPARE REGISTER (Compare - CP0 REGISTER 11, SELECT 0) This register acts in conjunction with the Count register to implement a timer and timer interrupt function. The timer interrupt is an output of the core. The Compare register maintains a stable value and does not change on its own. When the value of the Count register equals the value of the Compare register, the SI_TimerInt pin is asserted. This pin remains asserted until the Compare register is written. The SI_TimerInt pin can be fed back into the core on one of the interrupt pins to generate an interrupt. For diagnostic purposes, the Compare register is a read/write register. In normal use, however, the Compare register is write-only. Writing a value to the Compare register, as a side effect, clears the timer interrupt. This register is set to 0xFFFFFFFF in the PIC32MX start-up code. 12.3.5.6 STATUS REGISTER (Status - CP0 REGISTER 12, SELECT 0) This register is a read/write register that contains the operating mode, Interrupt Enabling, and the diagnostic states of the processor. Fields of this register combine to create operating modes for the processor. The following settings are initialized by the PIC32MX start-up code (0b000000000x0xx0?00000000000000000): * * * * * * * * * * Access to Coprocessor 0 not allowed in User mode (CU0 = 0) User mode uses configured endianess (RE = 0) No change to exception vectors location (BEV = no change) No change to flag bits that indicate reason for entry to the Reset exception vector (SR, NMI = no change) Interrupt masks are cleared to disable any pending interrupt requests (IM7..IM2 = 0, IM1..IM0 = 0) Interrupt priority level is 0 (IPL = 0) Base mode is Kernel mode (UM = 0) Error level is normal (ERL = 0) Exception level is normal (EXL = 0) Interrupts are disabled (IE = 0) 12.3.5.7 INTERRUPT CONTROL REGISTER (IntCtl - CP0 REGISTER 12, SELECT 1) This register controls the expanded interrupt capability added in Release 2 of the Architecture, including vectored interrupts and support for an external interrupt controller. This register contains the vector spacing for interrupt handling. The vector spacing portion of this register (bits 9..5) is initialized with the value of the _vector_spacing symbol by the PIC32MX start-up code. All other bits are set to `1'. DS51686E-page 150 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Main, Runtime Start-up and Reset 12.3.5.8 SHADOW REGISTER CONTROL REGISTER (SRSCtl - CP0 REGISTER 12, SELECT 2) This register controls the operation of the GPR shadow sets in the processor. No initialization is performed on this register in the PIC32MX start-up code. 12.3.5.9 SHADOW REGISTER MAP REGISTER (SRSMap - CP0 REGISTER 12, SELECT 3) This register contains eight 4-bit fields that provide the mapping from a vector number to the shadow set number to use when servicing such an interrupt. The values from this register are not used for a non-interrupt exception, or a non-vectored interrupt (CauseIV = 0 or IntCtlVS = 0). In such cases, the shadow set number comes from SRSCtlESS. If SRSCtlHSS is zero, the results of a software read or write of this register are UNPREDICTABLE. The operation of the processor is UNDEFINED if a value is written to any field in this register that is greater than the value of SRSCtlHSS. The SRSMap register contains the shadow register set numbers for vector numbers 7..0. The same shadow set number can be established for multiple interrupt vectors, creating a many-to-one mapping from a vector to a single shadow register set number. No initialization is performed on this register in the PIC32MX start-up code. 12.3.5.10 CAUSE REGISTER (Cause - CP0 REGISTER 13, SELECT 0) This register primarily describes the cause of the most recent exception. In addition, fields also control software interrupt requests and the vector through which interrupts are dispatched. With the exception of the DC, IV, and IP1..IP0 fields, all fields in the Cause register are read-only. Release 2 of the Architecture added optional support for an External Interrupt Controller (EIC) interrupt mode, in which IP7..IP2 are interpreted as the Requested Interrupt Priority Level (RIPL). The following settings are initialized by the PIC32MX start-up code: * Enable counting of Count register (DC = no change) * Use the special exception vector (16#200) (IV = 1) * Disable software interrupt requests (IP1..IP0 = 0) 12.3.5.11 EXCEPTION PROGRAM COUNTER (EPC - CP0 REGISTER 14, SELECT 0) This register is a read/write register that contains the address at which processing resumes after an exception has been serviced. All bits of the EPC register are significant and must be writable. For synchronous (precise) exceptions, the EPC contains one of the following: * The virtual address of the instruction that was the direct cause of the exception * The virtual address of the immediately preceding branch or jump instruction, when the exception causing instruction is a branch delay slot and the Branch Delay bit in the Cause register is set. On new exceptions, the processor does not write to the EPC register when the EXL bit in the Status register is set; however, the register can still be written via the MTC0 instruction. No initialization is performed on this register in the PIC32MX start-up code. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 151 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 12.3.5.12 PROCESSOR IDENTIFICATION REGISTER (PRId - CP0 REGISTER 15, SELECT 0) This register is a 32-bit read-only register that contains information identifying the manufacturer, manufacturer options, processor identification, and revision level of the processor. No initialization is performed on this register in the PIC32MX start-up code. 12.3.5.13 EXCEPTION BASE REGISTER (EBase - CP0 REGISTER 15, SELECT 1) This register is a read/write register containing the base address of the exception vectors used when StatusBEV equals 0, and a read-only CPU number value that may be used by software to distinguish different processors in a multi-processor system. The EBase register provides the ability for software to identify the specific processor within a multi-processor system, and allows the exception vectors for each processor to be different, especially in systems composed of heterogeneous processors. Bits 31..12 of the EBase register are concatenated with zeros to form the base of the exception vectors when StatusBEV is 0. The exception vector base address comes from fixed defaults when StatusBEV is 1, or for any EJTAG Debug exception. The reset state of bits 31..12 of the EBase register initialize the exception base register to 16#80000000, providing backward compatibility with Release 1 implementations. Bits 31..30 of the EBase register are fixed with the value 2#10 to force the exception base address to be in KSEG0 or KSEG1 unmapped virtual address segments. If the value of the exception base register is to be changed, this must be done with StatusBEV equal 1. The operation of the processor is UNDEFINED if the Exception Base field is written with a different value when StatusBEV is 0. Combining bits 31..30 with the Exception Base field allows the base address of the exception vectors to be placed at any 4K byte page boundary. If vectored interrupts are used, a vector offset greater than 4K byte can be generated. In this case, bit 12 of the Exception Base field must be zero. The operation of the processor is UNDEFINED if software writes bit 12 of the Exception Base field with a 1 and enables the use of a vectored interrupt whose offset is greater than 4K bytes from the exception base address. This register is initialized with the value of the _ebase_address symbol by the PIC32MX start-up code. _ebase_address is provided by the linker script with a default value of the start of KSEG1 program memory. The user can change this value by providing the command line option --defsym _ebase_address=A to the linker. 12.3.5.13.1 Config Register (Config - CP0 Register 16, Select 0) This register specifies various configuration and capabilities information. Most of the fields in the Config register are initialized by hardware during the Reset exception process, or are constant. No initialization is performed on this register in the PIC32MX start-up code. 12.3.5.13.2 Config1 Register (Config1 - CP0 Register 16, Select 1) This register is an adjunct to the Config register and encodes additional information about the capabilities present on the core. All fields in the Config1 register are read-only. No initialization is performed on this register in the PIC32MX start-up code. DS51686E-page 152 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Main, Runtime Start-up and Reset 12.3.5.13.3 Config2 Register (Config2 - CP0 Register 16, Select 2) This register is an adjunct to the Config register and is reserved to encode additional capabilities information. Config2 is allocated for showing the configuration of level 2/3 caches. These fields are reset to 0 because L2/L3 caches are not supported on the core. All fields in the Config2 register are read-only. No initialization is performed on this register in the PIC32MX start-up code. 12.3.5.13.4 Config3 Register (Config3 - CP0 Register 16, Select 3) This register encodes additional capabilities. All fields in the Config3 register are read-only. No initialization is performed on this register in the PIC32MX start-up code. 12.3.5.14 DEBUG REGISTER (Debug - CP0 REGISTER 23, SELECT 0) This register is used to control the debug exception and provide information about the cause of the debug exception, and when re-entering at the debug exception vector due to a normal exception in Debug mode. The read-only information bits are updated every time the debug exception is taken, or when a normal exception is taken when already in Debug mode. Only the DM bit and the EJTAGver field are valid when read from non-Debug mode. The values of all other bits and fields are UNPREDICTABLE. Operation of the processor is UNDEFINED if the Debug register is written from non-Debug mode. No initialization is performed on this register in the PIC32MX start-up code. 12.3.5.15 TRACE CONTROL REGISTER (TraceControl - CP0 REGISTER 23, SELECT 1) This register provides control and status information. The TraceControl register is only implemented if the EJTAG Trace capability is present. No initialization is performed on this register in the PIC32MX start-up code. 12.3.5.16 TRACE CONTROL 2 REGISTER (TraceControl2 - CP0 REGISTER 23, SELECT 2) This register provides additional control and status information. The TraceControl2 register is only implemented if the EJTAG Trace capability is present. No initialization is performed on this register in the PIC32MX start-up code. 12.3.5.17 USER TRACE DATA REGISTER (UserTraceData - CP0 REGISTER 23, SELECT 3) When this register is written to, a trace record is written indicating a type 1 or type 2 user format. This type is based on the UT bit in the TraceControl register. This register cannot be written in consecutive cycles. The trace output data is UNPREDICTABLE if this register is written in consecutive cycles. The UserTraceData register is only implemented if the EJTAG Trace capability is present. No initialization is performed on this register in the PIC32MX start-up code. 12.3.5.18 TRACEBPC REGISTER (TraceBPC - CP0 REGISTER 23, SELECT 4) This register is used to control start and stop of tracing using an EJTAG hardware breakpoint. The hardware breakpoint would then be set as a triggered source and optionally also as a Debug exception breakpoint. The TraceBPC register is only implemented if both the hardware breakpoints and the EJTAG Trace cap are present. No initialization is performed on this register in the PIC32MX start-up code. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 153 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 12.3.5.19 DEBUG2 REGISTER (Debug2 - CP0 REGISTER 23, SELECT 5) This register holds additional information about complex breakpoint exceptions. The Debug2 register is only implemented if complex hardware breakpoints are present. No initialization is performed on this register in the PIC32MX start-up code. 12.3.5.20 DEBUG EXCEPTION PROGRAM COUNTER (DEPC - CP0 REGISTER 24, SELECT 0) This register is a read/write register that contains the address at which processing resumes after a debug exception or Debug mode exception has been serviced. For synchronous (precise) debug and Debug mode exceptions, the DEPC contains either: * The virtual address of the instruction that was the direct cause of the debug exception, or * The virtual address of the immediately preceding branch or jump instruction, when the debug exception causing instruction is in a branch delay slot, and the Debug Branch Delay (DBD) bit in the Debug register is set. For asynchronous debug exceptions (debug interrupt, complex break), the DEPC contains the virtual address of the instruction where execution should resume after the debug handler code is executed. No initialization is performed on this register in the PIC32MX start-up code. 12.3.5.21 ERROR EXCEPTION PROGRAM COUNTER (ErrorEPC - CP0 REGISTER 30, SELECT 0) This register is a read/write register, similar to the EPC register, except that it is used on error exceptions. All bits of the ErrorEPC are significant and must be writable. It is also used to store the program counter on Reset, Soft Reset, and Non-Maskable Interrupt (NMI) exceptions. The ErrorEPC register contains the virtual address at which instruction processing can resume after servicing an error. This address can be: * The virtual address of the instruction that caused the exception, or * The virtual address of the immediately preceding branch or jump instruction when the error causing instruction is a branch delay slot. Unlike the EPC register, there is no corresponding branch delay slot indication for the ErrorEPC register. No initialization is performed on this register in the PIC32MX start-up code. 12.3.5.22 DEBUG EXCEPTION SAVE REGISTER (DeSave - CP0 REGISTER 31, SELECT 0) This register is a read/write register that functions as a simple memory location. This register is used by the debug exception handler to save one of the GPRs that is then used to save the rest of the context to a pre-determined memory area (such as in the EJTAG Probe). This register allows the safe debugging of exception handlers and other types of code where the existence of a valid stack for context saving cannot be assumed. No initialization is performed on this register in the PIC32MX start-up code. 12.3.6 Call "On Bootstrap" Procedure A procedure is called after initializing the CP0 registers. This procedure allows users to perform actions during bootstrap (i.e., while StatusBEV is set) and before entering into the main routine. An empty weak version of this procedure (_on_bootstrap) is provided with the start-up code. This procedure may be used for performing hardware initialization and/or for initializing the environment required by an RTOS. DS51686E-page 154 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Main, Runtime Start-up and Reset 12.3.7 Change Location of Exception Vectors Immediately before executing any application code, the StatusBEV is cleared to change the location of the exception vectors from the bootstrap location to the normal location. 12.3.8 Call the C++ initialization code Invoke all constructors for C++ file-scope static-storage objects. The startup code must call the constructors last because the low-level initialization must be done before executing application code. 12.3.9 Call Main The last thing that the start-up code performs is a call to the main routine. If the user returns from main, the start-up code goes into an infinite loop. 12.3.10 Symbols Required by Start-up Code and C/C++ Library This section details the symbols that are required by the start-up code and C/C++ library. Currently the default linker script defines these symbols. If an application provides a custom linker script, the user must ensure that all of the following symbols are provided in order for the start-up code and C library to function: Symbol Name Description _bmxdkpba_address The address to place into the BMXDKPBA register if _ramfunc_length is greater than 0. _bmxdudba_address The address to place into the BMXDUDBA register if _ramfunc_length is greater than 0. _bmxdupba_address The address to place into the BMXDUPBA register if _ramfunc_length is greater than 0. _ebase_address The location of EBASE. _end The end of data allocation. _gp Points to the "middle" of the small variables region. By convention this is 0x8000 bytes from the first location used for small variables. _heap The starting location of the heap in DRM. _ramfunc_begin The starting location of the RAM functions. This should be located at a 2K boundary as it is used to initialize the BMXDKPBA register. _ramfunc_length The length of the .ramfunc section. _stack The starting location of the stack in DRM. Remember that the stack grows from the bottom of data memory so this symbol should point to the bottom of the section allocated for the stack. _vector_spacing The initialization value for the vector spacing field in the IntCtl register. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 155 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 12.3.11 Exceptions In addition, two weak general exception handlers are provided that can be overridden by the application -- one to handle exceptions when StatusBEV is 1 (_bootstrap_exception_handler), and one to handle exceptions when StatusBEV is 0 (_general_exception_handler). Both the weak Reset exception handler and the weak general exception handler provided with the start-up code enters an infinite loop. The start-up code arranges for a jump to the reset exception handler to be located at 0xBFC00380, and a jump to the general exception handler to be located at EBASE + 0x180. Both handlers must be attributed with the nomips16 [e.g., __attribute__ ((nomips16))], since the start-up code jumps to these functions. FIGURE 12-5: DS51686E-page 156 EXCEPTIONS 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Main, Runtime Start-up and Reset 12.4 THE ON RESET ROUTINE Some hardware configurations require special initialization, often within the first few instruction cycles after reset. To achieve this, there is a hook provided via the on reset routine. This routine is called after initializing a minimum `C' context. An empty weak version of this procedure (_on_reset) is provided with the start-up code. A stub for this routine can be found in pic32-libs/libc/stubs in the installation directory of your compiler. Special consideration needs to be taken by the user if this procedure is written in `C'. Most importantly, statically allocated variables are not initialized (with either the specified initializer or a zero as required for uninitialized variables).The stack pointer has been initialized when this routine is called. 12.4.1 Clearing Objects The runtime start-up code will clear all memory locations occupied by uninitialized variables so they will contain zero before main() is executed. Variables whose contents should be preserved over a reset should use the persistent attribute, see Section 6.10 "Standard Type Qualifiers" for more information. Such variables are linked in a different area of memory and are not altered by the runtime start-up code in any way. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 157 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide NOTES: DS51686E-page 158 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Chapter 13. Library Routines 13.1 USING LIBRARY ROUTINES Library functions or routines (and any associated variables) will be automatically linked into a program once they have been referenced in your source code. The use of a function from one library file will not include any other functions from that library. Only used library functions will be linked into the program output and consume memory. Your program will require declarations for any functions or symbols used from libraries. These are contained in the standard C header (.h) files. Header files are not library files and the two files types should not be confused. Library files contain precompiled code, typically functions and variable definitions; the header files provide declarations (as opposed to definitions) for functions, variables and types in the library files, as well as other preprocessor macros. #include <math.h> // declare function prototype for sqrt int main(void) { double i; // sqrt referenced; sqrt will be linked in from library file i = sqrt(23.5); } 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 159 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide NOTES: DS51686E-page 160 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Chapter 14. Mixing C/C++ and Assembly Language 14.1 INTRODUCTION Assembly language code can be mixed with C/C++ code using two different techniques: writing assembly code and placing it into a separate assembler module, or including it as in-line assembly in a C/C++ module.This section describes how to use assembly language and C/C++ modules together. It gives examples of using C/C++ variables and functions in assembly code, and examples of using assembly language variables and functions in C/C++. The more assembly code a project contains, the more difficult and time consuming its maintenance will be. As the project is developed, the compiler may work in different ways as some optimizations look at the entire program. The assembly code is more likely to fail if the compiler is updated due to differences in the way the updated compiler may work. These factors do not affect code written in C/C++ Note: If assembly must be added, it is preferable to write this as self-contained routine in a separate assembly module rather than in-lining it in C code. * Using Inline Assembly Language * Predefined Assembly Macros 14.2 USING INLINE ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE Within a C/C++ function, the asm statement may be used to insert a line of assembly language code into the assembly language that the compiler generates. Inline assembly has two forms: simple and extended. In the simple form, the assembler instruction is written using the syntax: asm ("instruction"); where instruction is a valid assembly-language construct. If you are writing inline assembly in ANSI C programs, write __asm__ instead of asm. Note: Only a single string can be passed to the simple form of inline assembly. In an extended assembler instruction using asm, the operands of the instruction are specified using C/C++ expressions. The extended syntax is: asm("template" [ : [ "constraint"(output-operand) [ , ... ] ] [ : [ "constraint"(input-operand) [ , ... ] ] [ "clobber" [ , ... ] ] ] ]); You must specify an assembler instruction template, plus an operand constraint string for each operand. The template specifies the instruction mnemonic, and optionally placeholders for the operands. The constraint strings specify operand constraints, for example, that an operand must be in a register (the usual case), or that an operand must be an immediate value. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 161 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide Constraint letters and modifiers supported by the compiler are listed in Table 14-1 through Table 14-4. TABLE 14-1: REGISTER CONSTRAINT LETTERS SUPPORTED BY THE COMPILER Letter Constraint c A register suitable for use in an indirect jump d An address register. This is equivalent to @code{r} unless generating MIPS16 code ka Registers that can be used as the target of multiply-accumulate instructions l The @code{lo} register. Use this register to store values that are no bigger than a word x The concatenated @code{hi} and @code{lo} registers. Use this register to store double-word values TABLE 14-2: INTEGER CONSTRAINT LETTERS SUPPORTED BY THE COMPILER Letter Constraint I A signed 32-bit constant (for arithmetic instructions) J Integer zero K An unsigned 32-bit constant (for logic instructions) L A signed 32-bit constant in which the lower 32 bits are zero. Such constants can be loaded using @code{lui} M A constant that cannot be loaded using @code{lui}, @code{addiu}or @code{ori} N A constant in the range -65535 to -1 (inclusive) O A signed 15-bit constant P A constant in the range 1 to 65535 (inclusive) TABLE 14-3: GENERAL CONSTRAINT LETTERS SUPPORTED BY THE COMPILER Letter Constraint An address that can be used in a non-macro load or store. R TABLE 14-4: CONSTRAINT MODIFIERS SUPPORTED BY THE COMPILER Letter Constraint = Means that this operand is write-only for this instruction: the previous value is discarded and replaced by output data + Means that this operand is both read and written by the instruction & Means that this operand is an earlyclobber operand, which is modified before the instruction is finished using the input operands. Therefore, this operand may not lie in a register that is used as an input operand or as part of any memory address d Second register for operand number n, i.e., %dn.. q Fourth register for operand number n, i.e., %qn.. t Third register for operand number n, i.e., %tn.. Examples: * Insert Bit Field * Multiple Assembler Instructions DS51686E-page 162 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Mixing C/C++ and Assembly Language Insert Bit Field This example demonstrates how to use the INS instruction to insert a bit field into a 32-bit wide variable. This function-like macro uses inline assembly to emit the INS instruction, which is not commonly generated from C/C++ code. /* MIPS32r2 insert bits */ #define _ins(tgt,val,pos,sz) __extension__({ \ unsigned int __t = (tgt), __v = (val); \ __asm__ ("ins %0,%z1,%2,%3" /* template */ \ : "+d" (__t) /* output */ \ : "dJ" (__v), "I" (pos), "I" (sz)); /* input */ \ __t; \ }) Here __v, pos, and sz are input operands. The __v operand is constrained to be of type 'd' (an address register) or 'J' (integer zero). The pos and sz operands are constrained to be of type 'I' (a signed 32-bit constant). The __t output operand is constrained to be of type 'd' (an address register). The '+' modifier means that this operand is both read and written by the instruction and so the operand is both an input and an output. The following example shows this macro in use. unsigned int result; void example (void) { unsigned int insertval = 0x12; result = 0xAAAAAAAAu; result = _ins(result, insertval, 4, 8); /* result is now 0xAAAAA12A */ } For this example, the compiler may generate assembly code similar to the following. li ori $2,-1431699456 $2,$2,0xaaaa # 0xaaaa0000 # 0xaaaa0000 | 0xaaaa li $3,18 ins $2,$3,4,8 # 0x12 # inline assembly lui j sw # assign the result back # return $3,%hi(result) $31 $2,%lo(result)($3) Multiple Assembler Instructions This example demonstrates how to use the WSBH and ROTR instructions together for a byte swap. The WSBH instruction is a 32-bit byte swap within each of the two halfwords. The ROTR instruction is a rotate right by immediate. This function-like macro uses inline assembly to create a "byte-swap word" using instructions that are not commonly generated from C/C++ code. The following shows the definition of the function-like macro, _bswapw. /* MIPS32r2 byte-swap word */ #define _bswapw(x) __extension__({ unsigned int __x = (x), __v; __asm__ ("wsbh %0,%1;\n\t" "rotr %0,16" /* template */ : "=d" (__v) /* output */ : "d" (__x)) /* input*/ ; __v; }) 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. \ \ \ \ \ \ \ DS51686E-page 163 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide Here __x is the C expression for the input operand. The operand is constrained to be of type 'd', which denotes an address register. The C expression __v is the output operand. This operand is also constrained to be of type 'd'. The '=' means that this operand is write-only for this instruction: the previous value is discarded and replaced by output data. The function-like macro is shown in the following example assigning to result the content of value, swapped. unsigned int result; int example (void) { unsigned int value = 0x12345678u; result = _bswapw(value); /* result == 0x78563412 */ } The compiler may generate assembly code similar to the following for this example: li$2,305397760 addiu$2,$2,22136 wsbh $2,$2; rotr $2,16 lui$2,%hi(result) j $31 sw$3,%lo(result)($2) 14.2.1 # # # # # # 0x12340000 0x12340000 + 0x5678 From inline asm From inline asm assign back to result return Equivalent Assembly Symbols C/C++ symbols can be accessed directly with no modification in extended assembly code. 14.3 PREDEFINED ASSEMBLY MACROS Several predefined macros are available once you include <xc.h>. The exact operation of these macros is dependent on the instruction set employed. Table 14-5 shows general purpose predefined macros and their operation. TABLE 14-5: PREDEFINED MACROS Macro DS51686E-page 164 Description _nop() Insert a No Operation instruction _ehb() Insert Execution Hazard Barrier instruction _sync() Insert Synchronize Shared Memory instruction _wait() Insert instruction to enter Standby mode _mfc0(rn, sel) See <xc.h> file _mtc0(rn, sel, v) See <xc.h> file _mxc0(rn, sel, v) See <xc.h> file _bcc0(rn, sel, clr) For the CP0 register specified by rn and sel, clear bits corresponding to those bits in clr which are non-zero _bsc0(rn, sel, set) For the CP0 register specified by rn and sel, clear bits corresponding to those bits in clr which are non-zero _bcsc0(rn, sel, clr, set) For the CP0 register specified by rn and sel, clear bits corresponding to those bits in clr which are non-zero, and set bits corresponding to those bits in set which are non-zero for the CP0 register specified by rn and sel, clear bits corresponding to those bits in clr which are non-zero, and set bits corresponding to those bits in set which are non-zero 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Mixing C/C++ and Assembly Language TABLE 14-5: PREDEFINED MACROS Macro Description _clz(x) Count leading zeroes in x _ctz(x) Count trailing zeroes in x _clo(x) Count leading ones in x _dclz(x) Simulate 64-bit count leading zeroes in x _dclo(x) Simulate 64-bit count leading ones in x _dctz(x Simulate 64-bit count trailing zeroes in x _wsbh(x) See <xc.h> file _bswapw(x) See <xc.h> file _ins(tgt,val,pos,sz) See <xc.h> file See <xc.h> file _ext(x,pos,sz) _jr_hb() See <xc.h> file _wrpgpr(regno, val) See <xc.h> file _rdpgpr(regno) See <xc.h> file _get_byte(addr, errp) Return the least significant byte of addr _get_half(addr, errp) Return the least significant 16-bit word of addr _get_word(addr, errp) Return the least significant 32-bit word of addr _get_dword(addr, errp) Return the least significant 64-bit of addr _put_byte(addr, v) Write the least significant byte of addr with v _put_half(addr, v) Write the least significant 16-bit word of addr with v _put_word(addr, v) Write the least significant 32-bit word of addr with v _put_dword(addr, v) Write the least significant 64-bit word of addr with v 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 165 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide NOTES: DS51686E-page 166 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Chapter 15. Optimizations 15.1 INTRODUCTION Different MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler editions support different levels of optimization. Some editions are free to download and others must be purchased. Visit http://www.microchip.com/MPLABXCcompilers for more information on C and C++ licenses. The compiler editions are: Edition Cost Description Professional (PRO) Yes Implemented with the highest optimizations and performance levels. Standard (STD) Yes Implemented with ample optimizations levels and high performance levels. Free No Implemented with the most code optimizations restrictions. Evaluation (EVAL) No PRO edition enabled for 60 days and then reverts to Free edition. Setting Optimization Levels Different optimizations may be set ranging from no optimization to full optimization, depending on your compiler edition. When debugging code, you may wish to not optimize your code to ensure expected program flow. For details on compiler options used to set optimizations, see Section 3.9.7 "Options for Controlling Optimization". 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 167 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide NOTES: DS51686E-page 168 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Chapter 16. Preprocessing 16.1 INTRODUCTION All C/C++ source files are preprocessed before compilation. Assembly source files that use the .S extension (upper case) are also preprocessed. A large number of options control the operation of the preprocessor and preprocessed code, see Section 3.9.8 "Options for Controlling the Preprocessor". * * * * 16.2 C/C++ Language Comments Preprocessor Directives Pragma Directives Predefined Macros C/C++ LANGUAGE COMMENTS A C/C++ comment is ignored by the compiler and can be used to provide information to someone reading the source code. They should be used freely. Comments may be added by enclosing the desired characters within /* and */. The comment can run over multiple lines, but comments cannot be nested. Comments can be placed anywhere in C/C++ code, even in the middle of expressions, but cannot be placed in character constants or string literals. Since comments cannot be nested, it may be desirable to use the #if preprocessor directive to comment out code that already contains comments, for example: #if 0 result = read(); #endif /* TODO: Jim, check this function is right */ Single-line, C++ style comments may also be specified. Any characters following // to the end of the line are taken to be a comment and will be ignored by the compiler, as shown below: result = read(); 16.3 // TODO: Jim, check this function is right PREPROCESSOR DIRECTIVES MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler accepts all the standard preprocessor directives, which are listed in Table 16-1. TABLE 16-1: Directive PREPROCESSOR DIRECTIVES Meaning Example # Preprocessor null directive, do nothing # #assert Generate error if condition false #define Define preprocessor macro #assert #define #define #define #elif Short for #else #if see #ifdef #else Conditionally include source lines see #if 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. SIZE > 10 SIZE 5 FLAG add(a,b) ((a)+(b)) DS51686E-page 169 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide TABLE 16-1: PREPROCESSOR DIRECTIVES (CONTINUED) Directive Meaning Example #endif Terminate conditional source inclusion see #if #error Generate an error message #if Include source lines if constant expression true #ifdef Include source lines if preprocessor symbol defined #error Size too big #if SIZE < 10 c = process(10) #else skip(); #endif #ifdef FLAG do_loop(); #elif SIZE == 5 skip_loop(); #endif #ifndef Include source lines if preprocessor symbol not defined #include Include text file into source #ifndef FLAG jump(); #endif #include <stdio.h> #include "project.h" #line Specify line number and filename for listing #line 3 final #nn (Where nn is a number) short for #line nn #20 #pragma Compiler specific options Refer to Section 16.4 "Pragma #undef Undefines preprocessor symbol Directives" #warning Generate a warning message #undef FLAG #warning Length not set Macro expansion using arguments can use the # character to convert an argument to a string, and the ## sequence to concatenate arguments. If two expressions are being concatenated, consider using two macros in case either expression requires substitution itself, so for example, #define #define paste1(a,b) paste(a,b) a##b paste1(a,b) lets you use the paste macro to concatenate two expressions that themselves may require further expansion. The replacement token is rescanned for more macro identifiers, but remember that once a particular macro identifier has been expanded, it will not be expanded again if it appears after concatenation. The type and conversion of numeric values in the preprocessor domain is the same as in the C domain. Preprocessor values do not have a type, but acquire one as soon as they are converted by the preprocessor. Expressions may overflow their allocated type in the same way that C expressions may overflow. Overflow may be avoided by using a constant suffix. For example, an L after the number indicates it should be interpreted as a long once converted. So for example: #define MAX 100000*100000 and #define MAX 100000*100000L (note the L suffix) will define the values 0x540be400 and 0x2540be400, respectively. DS51686E-page 170 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Preprocessing 16.4 PRAGMA DIRECTIVES There are certain compile-time directives that can be used to modify the behavior of the compiler. These are implemented through the use of the ANSI standard #pragma facility. Any pragma which is not understood by the compiler will be ignored. The format of a pragma is: #pragma keyword options where keyword is one of a set of keywords, some of which are followed by certain options. A description of the keywords is given below. #pragma interrupt Mark a function as an interrupt handler. The prologue and epilogue code for the function will perform more extensive context preservation. Note that the interrupt attribute (rather than this pragma) is the recommended mechanism for marking a function as an interrupt handler. The interrupt pragma is provided for compatibility with other compilers. See Chapter 11. "Interrupts" and Section 11.5 "Exception Handlers". #pragma vector Generate a branch instruction at the indicated exception vector which targets the function. Note that the vector attribute (rather than this pragma) is the recommended mechanism for generating an exception/interrupt vector. See Chapter 11. "Interrupts" and Section 11.5 "Exception Handlers". #pragma config The #pragma config directive specifies the processor-specific configuration settings (i.e., Configuration bits) to be used by the application. See Section 11.3.2 "Interrupt Pragma". 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 171 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 16.5 PREDEFINED MACROS These predefined macros are available for use with the compiler: * 32-Bit C/C++ Compiler Macros * SDE Compatibility Macros 16.5.1 32-Bit C/C++ Compiler Macros The compiler defines a number of macros, most with the prefix "_MCHP_," which characterize the various target specific options, the target processor and other aspects of the host environment.C/C++ _MCHP_SZINT 32 or 64, depending on command line options to set the size of an integer (-mint32 -mint64) _MCHP_SZLONG 32 or 64, depending on command line options to set the size of an integer (-mlong32 -mlong64) _MCHP_SZPTR 32 always since all pointers are 32 bits __mchp_no_float Defined if -mno-float specified __NO_FLOAT Defined if -mno-float specified __PIC__ __pic__ The translation unit is being compiled for position independent code __PIC32MX __PIC32MX__ Always defined __PIC32_FEATURE_SET__ The compiler predefines a macro based on the features available for the selected device. These macros are intended to be used when writing code to take advantage of features available on newer devices while maintaining compatibility with older devices. Examples: PIC32MX795F512L would use __PIC32_FEATURE_SET__ == 795, and PIC32MX340F128H would use PIC32MX DS51686E-page 172 __PIC32_FEATURE_SET__ == 340 Defined if -ansi is not specified __LANGUAGE_ASSEMBLY __LANGUAGE_ASSEMBLY__ _LANGUAGE_ASSEMBLY Defined if compiling a pre-processed assembly file (.S files) LANGUAGE_ASSEMBLY Defined if compiling a pre-processed assembly file (.S files) and -ansi is not specified __LANGUAGE_C __LANGUAGE_C__ _LANGUAGE_C Defined if compiling a C file LANGUAGE_C Defined if compiling a C file and -ansi is not specified __LANGUAGE_C_PLUS_PLUS __cplusplus _LANGUAGE_C_PLUS_PLUS__ Defined if compiling a C++ file __EXCEPTIONS Defined if X++ exceptions are enabled __GXX_RTTI Defined if runtime type information is enabled 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Preprocessing __processor__ Where "processor" is the capitalized argument to the -mprocessor option. e.g., -mprocessor=32mx12f3456 will define __32MX12F3456__ __XC Always defined to indicate this is a Microchip XC compiler __XC32 Always defined to indicate this the XC32 compiler __VERSION__ The __VERSION__ macro expands to a string constant describing the compiler in use. Do not rely on its contents having any particular form, but it should contain at least the release number. Use the __XC32_VERSION macro for a numeric version number __XC32_VERSION or __C32_VERSION__ The C compiler defines the constant __XC32_VERSION, giving a numeric value to the version identifier. This macro can be used to construct applications that take advantage of new compiler features while still remaining backward compatible with older versions. The value is based upon the major and minor version numbers of the current release. For example, release version 1.03 will have a __XC32_VERSION definition of 1030. This macro can be used, in conjunction with standard preprocessor comparison statements, to conditionally include/exclude various code constructs 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 173 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 16.5.2 SDE Compatibility Macros The MIPS(R) SDE (Software Development Environment) defines a number of macros, most with the prefix "_MIPS_," which characterize various target specific options, some determined by command line options (e.g., -mint64). Where applicable, these macros will be defined by the compiler in order to ease porting applications and middleware from the SDE to the compiler. DS51686E-page 174 _MIPS_SZINT 32 or 64, depending on command line options to set the size of an integer (-mint32 -mint64) _MIPS_SZLONG 32 or 64, depending on command line options to set the size of an integer (-mlong32 -mlong64) _MIPS_SZPTR 32 always since all pointers are 32 bits __mips_no_float Defined if -mno-float specified __mips__ _mips _MIPS_ARCH_PIC32MX _MIPS_TUNE_PIC32MX _R3000 __R3000 __R3000__ __mips_soft_float __MIPSEL __MIPSEL__ _MIPSEL Always defined R3000 MIPSEL Defined if -ansi is not specified _mips_fpr Defined as 32 __mips16 Defined if -mips16 specified __mips Defined as 32 __mips_isa_rev Defined as 2 _MIPS_ISA Defined as _MIPS_ISA_MIPS32 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Chapter 17. Linking Programs 17.1 INTRODUCTION The compiler will automatically invoke the linker unless the compiler has been requested to stop after producing an intermediate file. Linker scripts are used to specify the available memory regions and where sections should be positioned in those regions. The linker creates a map file which details the memory assigned to sections. The map file is the best place to look for memory information. * Replacing Library Symbols * Linker-Defined Symbols * Default Linker Script 17.2 REPLACING LIBRARY SYMBOLS Unlike with the Microchip MPLAB XC8 compiler, not all library functions can be replaced with user-defined routines using MPLAB XC32 C/C++ Compiler. Only weak library functions (see Section 6.12 "Variable Attributes") can be replaced in this way. For those that are weak, any function you write in your code will replace an identically named function in the library files. 17.3 LINKER-DEFINED SYMBOLS The 32-bit linker defines several symbols that may be used in your C code development. Please see the "MPLAB(R) Assembler, Linker and Utilities for PIC32 MCUs User's Guide"(DS51833) for more information. The linker defines the symbols _ramfunc_begin and _bmxdkpba_address, which represent the starting address in RAM where ram functions will be accessed, and the corresponding address in the program memory from which the functions will be copied. They are used by the default runtime start-up code to initialize the bus matrix if ram functions exist in the project, see Section 10.3 "Allocation of Function Code". The linker also defines the symbol _stack, which is used by the runtime start-up code to initialize the stack pointer. This symbol represents the starting address for the software stack. All the above symbols are rarely required for more programs, but may assist you if you are writing your own runtime start-up code. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 175 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 17.4 DEFAULT LINKER SCRIPT The default linker script is located in the <install-directory>/pic32mx/lib/ldscripts/elf32pic32mx.x file. When compiling with the xc32-gcc or xc32-g++ compilation driver, the linker uses this file as the default linker script. The driver passes the path to the default linker script using the -T linker option. The default linker script contains the following categories of information: * Output Format and Entry Points * Default Values for Minimum Stack and Heap Sizes * Processor Definitions Include File - Inclusion of Processor-Specific Object File(s) - OPTIONAL Inclusion of Processor-Specific Peripheral Libraries - Base Exception Vector Address and Vector Spacing Symbols - Memory Address Equates - Memory Regions - Configuration Words Input/Output Section Map * Input/Output Section Map Note: 17.4.1 All addresses specified in the linker scripts should be specified as virtual addresses, not physical addresses. Output Format and Entry Points The first several lines of the default linker script define the output format and the entry point for the application. Copies of the default linker scripts are provided in program files/.../<install-dir>/pic32mx/lib/ldscripts. OUTPUT_FORMAT("elf32-tradlittlemips") OUTPUT_ARCH(pic32mx) ENTRY(_reset) The OUTPUT_FORMAT line selects the object file format for the output file. The output object file format generated by the 32-bit language tools is a traditional, little-endian, MIPS, ELF32 format. The OUTPUT_ARCH line selects the specific machine architecture for the output file. The output files generated by the 32-bit language tools contain information that identifies the file was generated for the PIC32MX architecture. The ENTRY line selects the entry point of the application. This is the symbol identifying the location of the first instruction to execute. The 32-bit language tools begins execution at the instruction identified by the _reset label. DS51686E-page 176 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Linking Programs 17.4.2 Default Values for Minimum Stack and Heap Sizes The next section of the default linker script provides default values for the minimum stack and heap sizes. /* * Provide for a minimum stack and heap size * - _min_stack_size - represents the minimum space that must * be made available for the stack. Can * be overridden from the command line * using the linker's --defsym option. * - _min_heap_size - represents the minimum space that must * be made available for the heap. Can * be overridden from the command line * using the linker's --defsym option. */ EXTERN (_min_stack_size _min_heap_size) PROVIDE(_min_stack_size = 0x400) ; PROVIDE(_min_heap_size = 0) ; The EXTERN line ensures that the rest of the linker script has access to the default values of _min_stack_size and _min_heap_size assuming that the user does not override these values using the linker's --defsym command line option. The two PROVIDE lines ensure that a default value is provided for both _min_stack_size and _min_heap_size. The default value for the minimum stack size is 1024 bytes (0x400). The default value for the minimum heap size is 0 bytes. 17.4.3 Processor Definitions Include File The next line in the default linker script pulls in information specific to the processor. INCLUDE procdefs.ld The file procdefs.ld is included in the linker script at this point. The file is searched for in the current directory and in any directory specified with the -L command line option. The compiler shell ensures that the correct directory is passed to the linker with the -L command line option based on the processor selected with the -mprocessor command line option. The processor definitions linker script contains the following pieces of information: * * * * * Inclusion of Processor-Specific Object File(s) Base Exception Vector Address and Vector Spacing Symbols Memory Address Equates Memory Regions Configuration Words Input/Output Section Map 17.4.3.1 INCLUSION OF PROCESSOR-SPECIFIC OBJECT FILE(S) This section of the processor definitions linker script ensures that the processor-specific object file(s) get included in the link. /************************************************************** * Processor-specific object file. Contains SFR definitions. **************************************************************/ INPUT("processor.o") The INPUT line specifies that processor.o should be included in the link as if this file were named on the command line. The linker attempts to find this file in the current directory. If it is not found, the linker searches through the library search paths (i.e., the paths specified with the -L command line option). 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 177 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 17.4.3.2 OPTIONAL INCLUSION OF PROCESSOR-SPECIFIC PERIPHERAL LIBRARIES This section of the processor definitions linker script ensures that the processor-specific peripheral libraries get included, but only if the files exist. /********************************************************************* * Processor-specific peripheral libraries are optional *********************************************************************/ OPTIONAL("libmchp_peripheral.a") OPTIONAL("libmchp_peripheral_32MX795F512L.a") The OPTIONAL lines specify that libmchp_peripheral.a and libmchp_peripheral_32MX795F512L.a should be included in the link as if the files were named on the command line. The linker attempts to find these files in the current directory. If they are not found in the current directory, the linker searches through the library search paths. If they are not found in the library search paths, the link process continues without error. The linker will error only when a symbol from the peripheral library is required but not found elsewhere. 17.4.3.3 BASE EXCEPTION VECTOR ADDRESS AND VECTOR SPACING SYMBOLS This section of the processor definitions linker script defines values for the base exception vector address and vector spacing. /************************************************************** * For interrupt vector handling **************************************************************/ _vector_spacing= 0x00000001; _ebase_address= 0x9FC01000; The first line defines a value of 1 for _vector_spacing. The available memory for exceptions only supports a vector spacing of 1. The second line defines the location of the base exception vector address (EBASE). On some devices, the base exception vector address is located in the KSEG0 boot segment. On other devices, the size of the KSEG0 boot segment is not sufficient for the vector table, so the base exception vector address is located in the KSEG0 program segment. In general, devices with at least 12 KB in the KSEG0 boot segment use the boot flash for the exception vector table. Devices with less than 12 KB in the KSEG0 boot segment use the KSEG0 program segment for the exception vector table. Be sure to check the procdefs.ld include file for the default address for your target device. DS51686E-page 178 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Linking Programs 17.4.3.4 MEMORY ADDRESS EQUATES This section of the processor definitions linker script provides information about certain memory addresses required by the default linker script. /************************************************************** * Memory Address Equates **************************************************************/ _RESET_ADDR = 0xBFC00000; _BEV_EXCPT_ADDR = 0xBFC00380; _DBG_EXCPT_ADDR = 0xBFC00480; _DBG_CODE_ADDR = 0xBFC02000; _GEN_EXCPT_ADDR = _ebase_address + 0x180; The _RESET_ADDR defines the processor's Reset address. This is the virtual begin address of the IFM boot section in Kernel mode. The _BEV_EXCPT_ADDR defines the address that the processor jumps to when an exception is encountered and StatusBEV = 1. The _DBG_EXCPT_ADDR defines the address that the processor jumps to when a debug exception is encountered. The _DBG_CODE_ADDR defines the address that is the start address of the debug executive. Note that this address may vary depending on the size of the KSEG0 boot segment on your target device. The _GEN_EXCPT_ADDR defines the address that the processor jumps to when an exception is encountered and StatusBEV = 0. 17.4.3.5 MEMORY REGIONS This section of the processor definitions linker script provides information about the memory regions that are available on the device. /************************************************************** * Memory Regions * * Memory regions without attributes cannot be used for * orphaned sections. Only sections specifically assigned to * these regions can be allocated into these regions. **************************************************************/ MEMORY { kseg0_program_mem (rx) : ORIGIN = 0x9D000000, LENGTH = 0x8000 kseg0_boot_mem : ORIGIN = 0x9FC00490, LENGTH = 0x970 exception_mem : ORIGIN = 0x9FC01000, LENGTH = 0x1000 kseg1_boot_mem : ORIGIN = 0xBFC00000, LENGTH = 0x490 debug_exec_mem : ORIGIN = 0xBFC02000, LENGTH = 0xFF0 config3 : ORIGIN = 0xBFC02FF0, LENGTH = 0x4 config2 : ORIGIN = 0xBFC02FF4, LENGTH = 0x4 config1 : ORIGIN = 0xBFC02FF8, LENGTH = 0x4 config0 : ORIGIN = 0xBFC02FFC, LENGTH = 0x4 kseg1_data_mem (w!x) : ORIGIN = 0xA0000000, LENGTH = 0x2000 sfrs : ORIGIN = 0xBF800000, LENGTH = 0x10000 } Eleven memory regions are defined with an associated start address and length: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Program memory region (kseg0_program_mem) for application code Boot memory regions (kseg0_boot_mem and kseg1_boot_mem) Exception memory region (exception_mem) Debug executive memory region (debug_exec_mem) Configuration memory regions (config3, config2, config1, and config0) 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 179 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 6. Data memory region (kseg1_data_mem) 7. SFR memory region (sfrs) The default linker script uses these names to locate sections into the correct regions. Sections which are non-standard become orphaned sections. The attributes of the memory regions are used to locate these orphaned sections. The attributes (rx) specify that read-only sections or executable sections can be located into the program memory regions. Similarly, the attributes (w!x) specify that sections that are not read-only and not executable can be located in the data memory region. Since no attributes are specified for the boot memory region, the configuration memory regions, or the SFR memory region, only specified sections may be located in these regions (i.e., orphaned sections may not be located in the boot memory regions, the exception memory region, the configuration memory regions, the debug executive memory region, or the SFR memory region). 17.4.3.6 CONFIGURATION WORDS INPUT/OUTPUT SECTION MAP The last section in the processor definitions linker script is the input/output section map for Configuration Words. This section map is additive to the Input/Output Section Map found in the default linker script (see Section 17.4.4 "Input/Output Section Map"). It defines how input sections for Configuration Words are mapped to output sections for Configuration Words. Note that input sections are portions of an application that are defined in source code, while output sections are created by the linker. Generally, several input sections may be combined into a single output section. All output sections are specified within a SECTIONS command in the linker script. For each Configuration Word that exists on the specific processor, a distinct output section named .config_address exists where address is the location of the Configuration Word in memory. Each of these sections contains the data created by the #pragma config directive (see Section 16.4 "Pragma Directives") for that Configuration Word. Each section is assigned to their respective memory region (confign). SECTIONS { .config_BFC02FF0 : { *(.config_BFC02FF0) } > config3 .config_BFC02FF4 : { *(.config_BFC02FF4) } > config2 .config_BFC02FF8 : { *(.config_BFC02FF8) } > config1 .config_BFC02FFC : { *(.config_BFC02FFC) } > config0 } DS51686E-page 180 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Linking Programs 17.4.4 Input/Output Section Map The last section in the default linker script is the input/output section map. The section map is the heart of the linker script. It defines how input sections are mapped to output sections. Note that input sections are portions of an application that are defined in source code, while output sections are created by the linker. Generally, several input sections may be combined into a single output section. All output sections are specified within a SECTIONS command in the linker script. The following output sections may be created by the linker: * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * .reset Section .bev_excpt Section .dbg_excpt Section .dbg_code Section .app_excpt Section .vector_0 .. .vector_63 Sections .start-up Section .text Section .rodata Sectionn .sdata2 Section .sbss2 Section .dbg_data Section .data Section .got Section .sdata Section .lit8 Section .lit4 Section .sbss Section .bss Section .heap Section .stack Section .ramfunc Section Stack Location Debug Sections 17.4.4.1 .RESET SECTION This section contains the code that is executed when the processor performs a Reset. This section is located at the Reset address (_RESET_ADDR), as specified in the processor definitions linker script and is assigned to the boot memory region (kseg1_boot_mem). The .reset output section also contains the C start-up code from the .reset.startup input section. .reset _RESET_ADDR : { KEEP(*(.reset)) KEEP(*(.reset.startup)) } > kseg1_boot_mem 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 181 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 17.4.4.2 .BEV_EXCPT SECTION This section contains the handler for exceptions that occur when StatusBEV = 1. This section is located at the BEV exception address (_BEV_EXCPT_ADDR) as specified in the processor definitions linker script and is assigned to the boot memory region (kseg1_boot_mem). .bev_excpt _BEV_EXCPT_ADDR : { (*(.bev_handler)) } > kseg1_boot_mem 17.4.4.3 .DBG_EXCPT SECTION This section reserves space for the debug exception vector. This section is only allocated if the symbol _DEBUGGER has been defined. (This symbol is defined if the -mdebugger command line option is specified to the shell.) This section is located at the debug exception address (_DBG_EXCPT_ADDR) as specified in the processor definitions linker script and is assigned to the boot memory region (kseg1_boot_mem). The section is marked as NOLOAD as it is only intended to ensure that application code cannot be placed at locations reserved for the debug executive. .dbg_excpt _DBG_EXCPT_ADDR (NOLOAD) : { . += (DEFINED (_DEBUGGER) ? 0x8 : 0x0); } > kseg1_boot_mem 17.4.4.4 .DBG_CODE SECTION This section reserves space for the debug exception handler. This section is only allocated if the symbol _DEBUGGER has been defined. (This symbol is defined if the -mdebugger command line option is specified to the shell.) This section is located at the debug code address (_DBG_CODE_ADDR) as specified in the processor definitions linker script and is assigned to the debug executive memory region (debug_exec_mem). The section is marked as NOLOAD because it is only intended to ensure that application code cannot be placed at locations reserved for the debug executive. .dbg_code _DBG_CODE_ADDR (NOLOAD) : { . += (DEFINED (_DEBUGGER) ? 0xFF0 : 0x0); } > debug_exec_mem 17.4.4.5 .APP_EXCPT SECTION This section contains the handler for exceptions that occur when StatusBEV = 0. This section is located at the general exception address (_GEN_EXCPT_ADDR) as specified in the processor definitions linker script and is assigned to the exception memory region (exception_mem). .app_excpt _GEN_EXCPT_ADDR : { KEEP(*(.gen_handler)) } > exception_mem DS51686E-page 182 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Linking Programs 17.4.4.6 .VECTOR_0 .. .VECTOR_63 SECTIONS These sections contain the handler for each of the interrupt vectors. These sections are located at the correct vectored addresses using the formula: _ebase_address + 0x200 + (_vector_spacing << 5) * n where n is the respective vector number. Each of the sections is followed by an assert that ensures the code located at the vector does not exceed the vector spacing specified. .vector_n _ebase_address + 0x200 + (_vector_spacing << 5) * n : { KEEP(*(.vector_n)) } > exception_mem ASSERT (SIZEOF(.vector_n) < (_vector_spacing << 5), "function at exception vector n too large") 17.4.4.7 .START-UP SECTION In XC32, the C and C++ startup code is located in the .reset section. We maintain the .startup output section in the default linker script for backwards compatibility purposes only. .startup ORIGIN(kseg0_boot_mem) : { *(.startup) } > kseg0_boot_mem 17.4.4.8 .TEXT SECTION The standard executable code sections are no longer mapped to the .text output section. However, a few special executable sections are still mapped here as shown below. This section is assigned to the program memory region (kseg0_program_mem) and has a fill value of NOP (0). The built-in linker script no longer maps standard .text executable code input sections. By not mapping these sections in the linker script, we allow these sections to be allocated using the best-fit allocator rather than the sequential allocator. Sections that are unmapped in the linker script, can flow around absolute sections specified in code whereas sections that are linker-script mapped are grouped together and allocated sequentially, potentially causing conflicts with absolute sections (using the address function attribute). .text ORIGIN(kseg0_program_mem) : { *(.stub .gnu.linkonce.t.*) KEEP (*(.text.*personality*)) *(.gnu.warning) *(.mips16.fn.*) *(.mips16.call.*) } > kseg0_program_mem =0 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 183 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 17.4.4.9 C++ INITIALIZATION SECTIONS The sections .init, .preinit_array, .init_array, .fini_array, .ctors, and .dtors are all used for the construction and destruction of file-scope static-storage C++ objects. /* Global-namespace object initialization */ .init : { KEEP (*crti.o(.init)) KEEP (*crtbegin.o(.init)) KEEP (*(EXCLUDE_FILE (*crtend.o *crtend?.o *crtn.o ).init)) KEEP (*crtend.o(.init)) KEEP (*crtn.o(.init)) . = ALIGN(4) ; } >kseg0_program_mem .fini : { KEEP (*(.fini)) . = ALIGN(4) ; } >kseg0_program_mem .preinit_array : { PROVIDE_HIDDEN (__preinit_array_start = .); KEEP (*(.preinit_array)) PROVIDE_HIDDEN (__preinit_array_end = .); . = ALIGN(4) ; } >kseg0_program_mem .init_array : { PROVIDE_HIDDEN (__init_array_start = .); KEEP (*(SORT(.init_array.*))) KEEP (*(.init_array)) PROVIDE_HIDDEN (__init_array_end = .); . = ALIGN(4) ; } >kseg0_program_mem .fini_array : { PROVIDE_HIDDEN (__fini_array_start = .); KEEP (*(SORT(.fini_array.*))) KEEP (*(.fini_array)) PROVIDE_HIDDEN (__fini_array_end = .); . = ALIGN(4) ; } >kseg0_program_mem .ctors : { /* XC32 uses crtbegin.o to find the start of the constructors, so we make sure it is first. Because this is a wildcard, it doesn't matter if the user does not actually link against crtbegin.o; the linker won't look for a file to match a wildcard. The wildcard also means that it doesn't matter which directory crtbegin.o is in. */ KEEP (*crtbegin.o(.ctors)) KEEP (*crtbegin?.o(.ctors)) /* We don't want to include the .ctor section from the crtend.o file until after the sorted ctors. The .ctor section from the crtend file contains the end of ctors marker and it must be last */ DS51686E-page 184 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Linking Programs KEEP (*(EXCLUDE_FILE (*crtend.o *crtend?.o ) .ctors)) KEEP (*(SORT(.ctors.*))) KEEP (*(.ctors)) . = ALIGN(4) ; } >kseg0_program_mem .dtors : { KEEP (*crtbegin.o(.dtors)) KEEP (*crtbegin?.o(.dtors)) KEEP (*(EXCLUDE_FILE (*crtend.o *crtend?.o ) .dtors)) KEEP (*(SORT(.dtors.*))) KEEP (*(.dtors)) . = ALIGN(4) ; } >kseg0_program_mem Note: The order of the input sections within each output section is significant. 17.4.4.10 .RODATA SECTION Standard read-only sections are not mapped in the linker script. A few special read-only sections are still mapped in the linker script, but most sections are unmapped, allowing them to be handled by the best fit allocator. This section is assigned to the program memory region (kseg0_program_mem). .rodata : { *(.gnu.linkonce.r.*) *(.rodata1) } > kseg0_program_mem 17.4.4.11 .SDATA2 SECTION This section collects the small initialized constant global and static data from all of the application's input files. Because of the constant nature of the data, this section is also a read-only section. This section is assigned to the program memory region (kseg0_program_mem). /* * Small initialized constant global and static data can be * placed in the .sdata2 section. This is different from * .sdata, which contains small initialized non-constant * global and static data. */ .sdata2 : { *(.sdata2 .sdata2.* .gnu.linkonce.s2.*) } > kseg0_program_mem 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 185 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 17.4.4.12 .SBSS2 SECTION This section collects the small uninitialized constant global and static data from all of the application's input files. Because of the constant nature of the data, this section is also a read-only section. This section is assigned to the program memory region (kseg0_program_mem). /* * Uninitialized constant global and static data (i.e., * variables which will always be zero). Again, this is * different from .sbss, which contains small non-initialized, * non-constant global and static data. */ .sbss2 : { *(.sbss2 .sbss2.* .gnu.linkonce.sb2.*) } > kseg0_program_mem 17.4.4.13 .DBG_DATA SECTION This section reserves space for the data required by the debug exception handler. This section is only allocated if the symbol _DEBUGGER has been defined. (This symbol is defined if the -mdebugger command line option is specified to the shell.) This section is assigned to the data memory region (kseg1_data_mem). The section is marked as NOLOAD as it is only intended to ensure that application data cannot be placed at locations reserved for the debug executive. .dbg_data (NOLOAD) : { . += (DEFINED (_DEBUGGER) ? 0x200 : 0x0); } > kseg1_data_mem 17.4.4.14 .DATA SECTION The linker generates a data-initialization template that the C start-up code uses to initialize variables. 17.4.4.15 .GOT SECTION This section collects the global offset table from all of the application's input files. This section is assigned to the data memory region (kseg1_data_mem) with a load address located in the program memory region (kseg0_program_mem). A symbol is defined to represent the location of the Global Pointer (_gp). _gp = ALIGN(16) + 0x7FF0 ; .got : { *(.got.plt) *(.got) } > kseg1_data_mem AT> kseg0_program_mem DS51686E-page 186 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Linking Programs 17.4.4.16 .SDATA SECTION This section collects the small initialized data from all of the application's input files. This section is assigned to the data memory region (kseg1_data_mem) with a load address located in the program memory region (kseg0_program_mem). Symbols are defined to represent the virtual begin (_sdata_begin) and end (_sdata_end) addresses of this section. /* * We want the small data sections together, so * single-instruction offsets can access them all, and * initialized data all before uninitialized, so * we can shorten the on-disk segment size. */ .sdata : { _sdata_begin = . ; *(.sdata .sdata.* .gnu.linkonce.s.*) _sdata_end = . ; } > kseg1_data_mem AT> kseg0_program_mem 17.4.4.17 .LIT8 SECTION This section collects the 8-byte constants which the assembler decides to store in memory rather than in the instruction stream from all of the application's input files. This section is assigned to the data memory region (kseg1_data_mem) with a load address located in the program memory region (kseg0_program_mem). .lit8 : { *(.lit8) } > kseg1_data_mem AT> kseg0_program_mem 17.4.4.18 .LIT4 SECTION This section collects the 4-byte constants which the assembler decides to store in memory rather than in the instruction stream from all of the application's input files. This section is assigned to the data memory region (kseg1_data_mem) with a load address located in the program memory region (kseg0_program_mem). A symbol is defined to represent the virtual end address of the initialized data (_data_end). .lit4 : { *(.lit4) } > kseg1_data_mem AT> kseg0_program_mem _data_end = . ; 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 187 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 17.4.4.19 .SBSS SECTION This section collects the small uninitialized data from all of the application's input files. This section is assigned to the data memory region (kseg1_data_mem). A symbol is defined to represent the virtual begin address of uninitialized data (_bss_begin). Symbols are also defined to represent the virtual begin (_sbss_begin) and end (_sbss_end) addresses of this section. _bss_begin = . ; .sbss : { _sbss_begin = . ; *(.dynsbss) *(.sbss .sbss.* .gnu.linkonce.sb.*) *(.scommon) _sbss_end = . ; } > kseg1_data_mem 17.4.4.20 .BSS SECTION This section collects the uninitialized data from all of the application's input files. This section is assigned to the data memory region (kseg1_data_mem). A symbol is defined to represent the virtual end address of uninitialized data (_bss_end). A symbol is also to represent the virtual end address of data memory (_end). .bss : { *(.dynbss) *(.bss .bss.* .gnu.linkonce.b.*) *(COMMON) /* * Align here to ensure that the .bss section occupies * space up to _end. Align after .bss to ensure correct * alignment even if the .bss section disappears because * there are no input sections. */ . = ALIGN(32 / 8) ; } > kseg1_data_mem . = ALIGN(32 / 8) ; _end = . ; _bss_end = . ; 17.4.4.21 .HEAP SECTION The linker now dynamically reserves an area of memory for the heap. The .heap section is no longer mapped in the linker script. The linker finds the largest unused gap of memory after all other sections are allocated and uses that gap for both the heap and the stack. The minimum amount of space reserved for the heap is determined by the symbol _min_heap_size. 17.4.4.22 .STACK SECTION The linker now dynamically reserves an area of memory for the stack. The .stack section is no longer mapped in the linker script. The linker finds the largest unused gap of memory after all other sections are allocated and uses that gap for both the heap and the stack. The minimum amount of space reserved for the stack is determined by the symbol _min_stack_size. DS51686E-page 188 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Linking Programs 17.4.4.23 .RAMFUNC SECTION The linker now dynamically collects the `ramfunc' attributed and ".ramfunc" named sections and allocates them sequentially in an appropriate range of memory. The first ramfunc attributed function is placed at the highest appropriately aligned address. The presence of a ramfunc section causes the linker to emit the symbols necessary for the crt0.S start-up code to initialize the PIC32 bus matrix appropriately. /* * RAM functions go at the end of our stack and heap allocation. * Alignment of 2K required by the boundary register (BMXDKPBA). * * RAM functions are now allocated by the linker. The linker generates * _ramfunc_begin and _bmxdkpba_address symbols depending on the * location of RAM functions. */ _bmxdudba_address = LENGTH(kseg1_data_mem) ; _bmxdupba_address = LENGTH(kseg1_data_mem) ; 17.4.4.24 STACK LOCATION A symbol is defined to represent the location of the Stack Pointer (_stack). As described previously, the heap and the stack are now allocated to the largest available gap of memory after other sections have been allocated. For PIC32 devices with more than 64K of data memory, GP relative addressing mode should not be used. To avoid conflict of using GP-relative addressing to the linker generated symbols, allocate the symbols in section "_linkergenerated": extern unsigned int __attribute__((section("_linkergenerated"))) _splim; 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 189 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 17.4.4.25 DEBUG SECTIONS The debug sections contain DWARF2 debugging information. They are not loaded into program Flash. /* Stabs debugging sections. */ .stab 0 : { *(.stab) } .stabstr 0 : { *(.stabstr) } .stab.excl 0 : { *(.stab.excl) } .stab.exclstr 0 : { *(.stab.exclstr) } .stab.index 0 : { *(.stab.index) } .stab.indexstr 0 : { *(.stab.indexstr) } .comment 0 : { *(.comment) } /* DWARF debug sections. Symbols in the DWARF debugging sections are relative to the beginning of the section so we begin them at 0. */ /* DWARF 1 */ .debug 0 : { *(.debug) } .line 0 : { *(.line) } /* GNU DWARF 1 extensions */ .debug_srcinfo 0 : { *(.debug_srcinfo) } .debug_sfnames 0 : { *(.debug_sfnames) } /* DWARF 1.1 and DWARF 2 */ .debug_aranges 0 : { *(.debug_aranges) } .debug_pubnames 0 : { *(.debug_pubnames) } /* DWARF 2 */ .debug_info 0 : { *(.debug_info .gnu.linkonce.wi.*) } .debug_abbrev 0 : { *(.debug_abbrev) } .debug_line 0 : { *(.debug_line) } .debug_frame 0 : { *(.debug_frame) } .debug_str 0 : { *(.debug_str) } .debug_loc 0 : { *(.debug_loc) } .debug_macinfo 0 : { *(.debug_macinfo) } /* SGI/MIPS DWARF 2 extensions */ .debug_weaknames 0 : { *(.debug_weaknames) } .debug_funcnames 0 : { *(.debug_funcnames) } .debug_typenames 0 : { *(.debug_typenames) } .debug_varnames 0 : { *(.debug_varnames) } .debug_pubtypes 0 : { *(.debug_pubtypes) } .debug_ranges 0 : { *(.debug_ranges) } /DISCARD/ : { *(.rel.dyn) } .gnu.attributes 0 : { KEEP (*(.gnu.attributes)) } /DISCARD/ : { *(.note.GNU-stack) } /DISCARD/ : { *(.note.GNU-stack) *(.gnu_debuglink) *(.gnu.lto_*) *(.discard) } DS51686E-page 190 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Appendix 18. Implementation-Defined Behavior 18.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter discusses the choices for implementation defined behavior in compiler. 18.2 HIGHLIGHTS Items discussed in this chapter are: * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 18.3 Overview Translation Environment Identifiers Characters Integers Floating-Point Arrays and Pointers Hints Structures, Unions, Enumerations, and Bit fields Qualifiers Declarators Statements Pre-Processing Directives Library Functions Architecture OVERVIEW ISO C requires a conforming implementation to document the choices for behaviors defined in the standard as "implementation-defined." The following sections list all such areas, the choices made for the compiler, and the corresponding section number from the ISO/IEC 9899:1999 standard. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 191 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 18.4 TRANSLATION ISO Standard: 18.5 "How a diagnostic is identified (3.10, 5.1.1.3)." Implementation: All output to stderr is a diagnostic. ISO Standard: "Whether each nonempty sequence of white-space characters other than new-line is retained or replaced by one space character in translation phase 3 (5.1.1.2)." Implementation: Each sequence of whitespace is replaced by a single character. ENVIRONMENT DS51686E-page 192 ISO Standard: "The name and type of the function called at program start-up in a freestanding environment (5.1.2.1)." Implementation: int main (void); ISO Standard: "The effect of program termination in a freestanding environment (5.1.2.1)." Implementation: An infinite loop (branch to self) instruction will be executed. ISO Standard: "An alternative manner in which the main function may be defined (5.1.2.2.1)." Implementation: int main (void); ISO Standard: "The values given to the strings pointed to by the argv argument to main (5.1.2.2.1)." Implementation: No arguments are passed to main. Reference to argc or argv is undefined. ISO Standard: "What constitutes an interactive device (5.1.2.3)." Implementation: Application defined. ISO Standard: "Signals for which the equivalent of signal(sig, SIG_IGN); is executed at program start-up (7.14.1.1)." Implementation: Signals are application defined. ISO Standard: "The form of the status returned to the host environment to indicate unsuccessful termination when the SIGABRT signal is raised and not caught (7.20.4.1)." Implementation: The host environment is application defined. ISO Standard: "The forms of the status returned to the host environment by the exit function to report successful and unsuccessful termination (7.20.4.3)." Implementation: The host environment is application defined. ISO Standard: "The status returned to the host environment by the exit function if the value of its argument is other than zero, EXIT_SUCCESS, or EXIT_FAILURE (7.20.4.3)." Implementation: The host environment is application defined. ISO Standard: "The set of environment names and the method for altering the environment list used by the getenv function (7.20.4.4)." Implementation: The host environment is application defined. ISO Standard: "The manner of execution of the string by the system function (7.20.4.5)." Implementation: The host environment is application defined. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Implementation-Defined Behavior 18.6 18.7 IDENTIFIERS ISO Standard: "Which additional multibyte characters may appear in identifiers and their correspondence to universal character names (6.4.2)." Implementation: No. ISO Standard: "The number of significant initial characters in an identifier (5.2.4.1, 6.4.2)." Implementation: All characters are significant. CHARACTERS ISO Standard: "The number of bits in a byte (C90 3.4, C99 3.6)." Implementation: 8. ISO Standard: "The values of the members of the execution character set (C90 and C99 5.2.1)." ISO Standard: "The unique value of the member of the execution character set produced for each of the standard alphabetic escape sequences (C90 and C99 5.2.2)." Implementation: The execution character set is ASCII. ISO Standard: "The value of a char object into which has been stored any character other than a member of the basic execution character set (C90 6.1.2.5, C99 6.2.5)." Implementation: The value of the char object is the 8-bit binary representation of the character in the source character set. That is, no translation is done. ISO Standard: "Which of signed char or unsigned char has the same range, representation, and behavior as "plain" char (C90 6.1.2.5, C90 6.2.1.1, C99 6.2.5, C99 6.3.1.1)." Implementation: By default, signed char is functionally equivalent to plain char. The options -funsigned-char and -fsigned-char can be used to change the default. ISO Standard: "The mapping of members of the source character set (in character constants and string literals) to members of the execution character set (C90 6.1.3.4, C99 6.4.4.4, C90 and C99 5.1.1.2)." Implementation: The binary representation of the source character set is preserved to the execution character set. ISO Standard: "The value of an integer character constant containing more than one character or containing a character or escape sequence that does not map to a single-byte execution character (C90 6.1.3.4, C99 6.4.4.4)." Implementation: The compiler determines the value for a multi-character character constant one character at a time. The previous value is shifted left by eight, and the bit pattern of the next character is masked in. The final result is of type int. If the result is larger than can be represented by an int, a warning diagnostic is issued and the value truncated to int size. ISO Standard: "The value of a wide character constant containing more than one multibyte character, or containing a multibyte character or escape sequence not represented in the extended execution character set (C90 6.1.3.4, C99 6.4.4.4)." Implementation: See previous. ISO Standard: "The current locale used to convert a wide character constant consisting of a single multibyte character that maps to a member of the extended execution character set into a corresponding wide character code (C90 6.1.3.4, C99 6.4.4.4)." Implementation: LC_ALL 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 193 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 18.8 18.9 ISO Standard: "The current locale used to convert a wide string literal into corresponding wide character codes (C90 6.1.4, C99 6.4.5)." Implementation: LC_ALL ISO Standard: "The value of a string literal containing a multibyte character or escape sequence not represented in the execution character set (C90 6.1.4, C99 6.4.5)." Implementation: The binary representation of the characters is preserved from the source character set. INTEGERS ISO Standard: "Any extended integer types that exist in the implementation (C99 6.2.5)." Implementation: There are no extended integer types. ISO Standard: "Whether signed integer types are represented using sign and magnitude, two's complement, or one's complement, and whether the extraordinary value is a trap representation or an ordinary value (C99 6.2.6.2)." Implementation: All integer types are represented as two's complement, and all bit patterns are ordinary values. ISO Standard: "The rank of any extended integer type relative to another extended integer type with the same precision (C99 6.3.1.1)." Implementation: No extended integer types are supported. ISO Standard: "The result of, or the signal raised by, converting an integer to a signed integer type when the value cannot be represented in an object of that type (C90 6.2.1.2, C99 6.3.1.3)." Implementation: When converting value X to a type of width N, the value of the result is the Least Significant N bits of the 2's complement representation of X. That is, X is truncated to N bits. No signal is raised. ISO Standard: "The results of some bitwise operations on signed integers (C90 6.3, C99 6.5)." Implementation: Bitwise operations on signed values act on the 2's complement representation, including the sign bit. The result of a signed right shift expression is sign extended. C99 allows some aspects of signed `<<' to be undefined. The compiler does not do so. FLOATING-POINT DS51686E-page 194 ISO Standard: "The accuracy of the floating-point operations and of the library functions in <math.h> and <complex.h> that return floating-point results (C90 and C99 5.2.4.2.2)." Implementation: The accuracy is unknown. ISO Standard: "The accuracy of the conversions between floating-point internal representations and string representations performed by the library functions in <stdio.h>, <stdlib.h>, and <wchar.h> (C90 and C99 5.2.4.2.2)." Implementation: The accuracy is unknown. ISO Standard: "The rounding behaviors characterized by non-standard values of FLT_ROUNDS (C90 and C99 5.2.4.2.2)." Implementation: No such values are used. ISO Standard: "The evaluation methods characterized by non-standard negative values of FLT_EVAL_METHOD (C90 and C99 5.2.4.2.2)." Implementation: No such values are used. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Implementation-Defined Behavior ISO Standard: "The direction of rounding when an integer is converted to a floating-point number that cannot exactly represent the original value (C90 6.2.1.3, C99 6.3.1.4)." Implementation: C99 Annex F is followed. ISO Standard: "The direction of rounding when a floating-point number is converted to a narrower floating-point number (C90 6.2.1.4, 6.3.1.5)." Implementation: C99 Annex F is followed. ISO Standard: "How the nearest representable value or the larger or smaller representable value immediately adjacent to the nearest representable value is chosen for certain floating constants (C90 6.1.3.1, C99 6.4.4.2)." Implementation: C99 Annex F is followed. ISO Standard: "Whether and how floating expressions are contracted when not disallowed by the FP_CONTRACT pragma (C99 6.5)." Implementation: The pragma is not implemented. ISO Standard: "The default state for the FENV_ACCESS pragma (C99 7.6.1)." Implementation: This pragma is not implemented. ISO Standard: "Additional floating-point exceptions, rounding modes, environments, and classifications, and their macro names (C99 7.6, 7.12)." Implementation: None supported. ISO Standard: "The default state for the FP_CONTRACT pragma (C99 7.12.2)." Implementation: This pragma is not implemented. ISO Standard: "Whether the "inexact" floating-point exception can be raised when the rounded result actually does equal the mathematical result in an IEC 60559 conformant implementation (C99 F.9)." Implementation: Unknown. ISO Standard: "Whether the "underflow" (and "inexact") floating-point exception can be raised when a result is tiny but not inexact in an IEC 60559 conformant implementation (C99 F.9)." Implementation: Unknown. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 195 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 18.10 ARRAYS AND POINTERS ISO Standard: "The result of converting a pointer to an integer or vice versa (C90 6.3.4, C99 6.3.2.3)." Implementation: A cast from an integer to a pointer or vice versa results uses the binary representation of the source type, reinterpreted as appropriate for the destination type. If the source type is larger than the destination type, the Most Significant bits are discarded. When casting from a pointer to an integer, if the source type is smaller than the destination type, the result is sign extended. When casting from an integer to a pointer, if the source type is smaller than the destination type, the result is extended based on the signedness of the source type. ISO Standard: "The size of the result of subtracting two pointers to elements of the same array (C90 6.3.6, C99 6.5.6)." Implementation: 32-bit signed integer. ISO Standard: "The extent to which suggestions made by using the register storage-class specifier are effective (C90 6.5.1, C99 6.7.1)." Implementation: The register storage class specifier generally has no effect. ISO Standard: "The extent to which suggestions made by using the inline function specifier are effective (C99 6.7.4)." Implementation: If -fno-inline or -O0 are specified, no functions will be inlined, even if specified with the inline specifier. Otherwise, the function may or may not be inlined dependent on the optimization heuristics of the compiler. 18.11 HINTS DS51686E-page 196 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Implementation-Defined Behavior 18.12 STRUCTURES, UNIONS, ENUMERATIONS, AND BIT FIELDS ISO Standard: "A member of a union object is accessed using a member of a different type (C90 6.3.2.3)." Implementation: The corresponding bytes of the union object are interpreted as an object of the type of the member being accessed without regard for alignment or other possible invalid conditions. ISO Standard: "Whether a "plain" int bit field is treated as a signed int bit field or as an unsigned int bit field (C90 6.5.2, C90 6.5.2.1, C99 6.7.2, C99 6.7.2.1)." Implementation: By default, a plain int bit field is treated as a signed integer. This behavior can be altered by use of the -funsigned-bitfields command line option. ISO Standard: "Allowable bit field types other than _Bool, signed int, and unsigned int (C99 6.7.2.1)." Implementation: No other types are supported. ISO Standard: "Whether a bit field can straddle a storage unit boundary (C90 6.5.2.1, C99 6.7.2.1)." Implementation: No. ISO Standard: "The order of allocation of bit fields within a unit (C90 6.5.2.1, C99 6.7.2.1)." Implementation: Bit fields are allocated left to right. ISO Standard: "The alignment of non-bit field members of structures (C90 6.5.2.1, C99 6.7.2.1)." Implementation: Each member is located to the lowest available offset allowable according to the alignment restrictions of the member type. ISO Standard: "The integer type compatible with each enumerated type (C90 6.5.2.2, C99 6.7.2.2)." Implementation: If the enumeration values are all non-negative, the type is unsigned int, else it is int. The -fshort-enums command line option can change this. 18.13 QUALIFIERS ISO Standard: "What constitutes an access to an object that has volatile-qualified type (C90 6.5.3, C99 6.7.3)." Implementation: Any expression which uses the value of or stores a value to a volatile object is considered an access to that object. There is no guarantee that such an access is atomic. If an expression contains a reference to a volatile object but neither uses the value nor stores to the object, the expression is considered an access to the volatile object or not depending on the type of the object. If the object is of scalar type, an aggregate type with a single member of scalar type, or a union with members of (only) scalar type, the expression is considered an access to the volatile object. Otherwise, the expression is evaluated for its side effects but is not considered an access to the volatile object. For example: volatile int a; a; /* access to `a' since `a' is scalar */ 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 197 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide 18.14 DECLARATORS ISO Standard: "The maximum number of declarators that may modify an arithmetic, structure or union type (C90 6.5.4)." Implementation: No limit. 18.15 STATEMENTS ISO Standard: "The maximum number of case values in a switch statement (C90 6.6.4.2)." Implementation: No limit. 18.16 PRE-PROCESSING DIRECTIVES ISO Standard: "How sequences in both forms of header names are mapped to headers or external source file names (C90 6.1.7, C99 6.4.7)." Implementation: The character sequence between the delimiters is considered to be a string which is a file name for the host environment. ISO Standard: "Whether the value of a character constant in a constant expression that controls conditional inclusion matches the value of the same character constant in the execution character set (C90 6.8.1, C99 6.10.1)." Implementation: Yes. ISO Standard: "Whether the value of a single-character character constant in a constant expression that controls conditional inclusion may have a negative value (C90 6.8.1, C99 6.10.1)." Implementation: Yes. ISO Standard: "The places that are searched for an included < > delimited header, and how the places are specified or the header is identified (C90 6.8.2, C99 6.10.2)." Implementation: <install directory>/lib/gcc/pic32mx/3.4.4/include <install directory>/pic32mx/include DS51686E-page 198 ISO Standard: "How the named source file is searched for in an included "" delimited header (C90 6.8.2, C99 6.10.2)." Implementation: The compiler first searches for the named file in the directory containing the including file, the directories specified by the -iquote command line option (if any), then the directories which are searched for a < > delimited header. ISO Standard: "The method by which preprocessing tokens are combined into a header name (C90 6.8.2, C99 6.10.2)." Implementation: All tokens, including whitespace, are considered part of the header file name. Macro expansion is not performed on tokens inside the delimiters. ISO Standard: "The nesting limit for #include processing (C90 6.8.2, C99 6.10.2)." Implementation: No limit. ISO Standard: "The behavior on each recognized non-STDC #pragma directive (C90 6.8.6, C99 6.10.6)." Implementation: See Section 6.12 "Variable Attributes". ISO Standard: "The definitions for __DATE_ _ and __TIME_ _ when respectively, the date and time of translation are not available (C90 6.8.8, C99 6.10.8)." Implementation: The date and time of translation are always available. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Implementation-Defined Behavior 18.17 LIBRARY FUNCTIONS ISO Standard: "The Null Pointer constant to which the macro NULL expands (C90 7.1.6, C99 7.17)." Implementation: (void *)0 ISO Standard: "Any library facilities available to a freestanding program, other than the minimal set required by clause 4 (5.1.2.1)." Implementation: See the "32-Bit Language Tools Libraries" (DS51685). ISO Standard: "The format of the diagnostic printed by the assert macro (7.2.1.1)." Implementation: "Failed assertion `message' at line line of `filename'.\n" ISO Standard: "The default state for the FENV_ACCESS pragma (7.6.1)." Implementation: Unimplemented. ISO Standard: "The representation of floating-point exception flags stored by the fegetexceptflag function (7.6.2.2)." Implementation: Unimplemented. ISO Standard: "Whether the feraiseexcept function raises the inexact exception in addition to the overflow or underflow exception (7.6.2.3)." Implementation: Unimplemented. ISO Standard: "Floating environment macros other than FE_DFL_ENV that can be used as the argument to the fesetenv or feupdateenv function (7.6.4.3, 7.6.4.4)." Implementation: Unimplemented. ISO Standard: "Strings other than "C" and "" that may be passed as the second argument to the setlocale function (7.11.1.1)." Implementation: None. ISO Standard: "The types defined for float_t and double_t when the value of the FLT_EVAL_METHOD macro is less than 0 or greater than 2 (7.12)." Implementation: Unimplemented. ISO Standard: "The infinity to which the INFINITY macro expands, if any (7.12)." Implementation: Unimplemented. ISO Standard: "The quiet NaN to which the NAN macro expands, when it is defined (7.12)." Implementation: Unimplemented. ISO Standard: "Domain errors for the mathematics functions, other than those required by this International Standard (7.12.1)." Implementation: None. ISO Standard: "The values returned by the mathematics functions, and whether errno is set to the value of the macro EDOM, on domain errors (7.12.1)." Implementation: ISO Standard: errno is set to EDOM on domain errors. "Whether the mathematics functions set errno to the value of the macro ERANGE on overflow and/or underflow range errors (7.12.1)." Implementation: Yes. ISO Standard: "The default state for the FP_CONTRACT pragma (7.12.2) Implementation: Unimplemented. ISO Standard: "Whether a domain error occurs or zero is returned when the fmod function has a second argument of zero (7.12.10.1)." Implementation: NaN is returned. ISO Standard: "The base-2 logarithm of the modulus used by the remquo function in reducing the quotient (7.12.10.3)." Implementation: Unimplemented. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 199 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide ISO Standard: "The set of signals, their semantics, and their default handling (7.14)." Implementation: The default handling of signals is to always return failure. Actual signal handling is application defined. ISO Standard: "If the equivalent of signal(sig, SIG_DFL); is not executed prior to the call of a signal handler, the blocking of the signal that is performed (7.14.1.1)." Implementation: Application defined. ISO Standard: "Whether the equivalent of signal(sig, SIG_DFL); is executed prior to the call of a signal handler for the signal SIGILL (7.14.1.1)." Implementation: Application defined. ISO Standard: "Signal values other than SIGFPE, SIGILL, and SIGSEGV that correspond to a computational exception (7.14.1.1)." Implementation: Application defined. ISO Standard: "Whether the last line of a text stream requires a terminating new-line character (7.19.2)." Implementation: Yes. ISO Standard: "Whether space characters that are written out to a text stream immediately before a new-line character appear when read in (7.19.2)." Implementation: Yes. ISO Standard: "The number of null characters that may be appended to data written to a binary stream (7.19.2)." Implementation: No null characters are appended to a binary stream. ISO Standard: "Whether the file position indicator of an append-mode stream is initially positioned at the beginning or end of the file (7.19.3)." Implementation: Application defined. The system level function open is called with the O_APPEND flag. DS51686E-page 200 ISO Standard: "Whether a write on a text stream causes the associated file to be truncated beyond that point (7.19.3)." Implementation: Application defined. ISO Standard: "The characteristics of file buffering (7.19.3)." ISO Standard: "Whether a zero-length file actually exists (7.19.3)." Implementation: Application defined. ISO Standard: "The rules for composing valid file names (7.19.3)." Implementation: Application defined. ISO Standard: "Whether the same file can be open multiple times (7.19.3)." Implementation: Application defined. ISO Standard: "The nature and choice of encodings used for multibyte characters in files (7.19.3)." Implementation: Encodings are the same for each file. ISO Standard: "The effect of the remove function on an open file (7.19.4.1)." Implementation: Application defined. The system function unlink is called. ISO Standard: "The effect if a file with the new name exists prior to a call to the rename function (7.19.4.2)." Implementation: Application defined. The system function link is called to create the new filename, then unlink is called to remove the old filename. Typically, link will fail if the new filename already exists. ISO Standard: "Whether an open temporary file is removed upon abnormal program termination (7.19.4.3)." Implementation: No. ISO Standard: "What happens when the tmpnam function is called more than TMP_MAX times (7.19.4.4)." 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Implementation-Defined Behavior Implementation: Temporary names will wrap around and be reused. ISO Standard: "Which changes of mode are permitted (if any), and under what circumstances (7.19.5.4)." Implementation: The file is closed via the system level close function and re-opened with the open function with the new mode. No additional restriction beyond those of the application defined open and close functions are imposed. ISO Standard: "The style used to print an infinity or NaN, and the meaning of the n-char-sequence if that style is printed for a NaN (7.19.6.1, 7.24.2.1)." Implementation: No char sequence is printed. NaN is printed as "NaN". Infinity is printed as "[-/+]Inf". ISO Standard: "The output for %p conversion in the fprintf or fwprintf function (7.19.6.1, 7.24.2.1)." Implementation: Functionally equivalent to %x. ISO Standard: "The interpretation of a - character that is neither the first nor the last character, nor the second where a ^ character is the first, in the scanlist for %[ conversion in the fscanf or fwscanf function (7.19.6.2, 7.24.2.1)." Implementation: Unknown ISO Standard: "The set of sequences matched by the %p conversion in the fscanf or fwscanf function (7.19.6.2, 7.24.2.2)." Implementation: The same set of sequences matched by %x. ISO Standard: "The interpretation of the input item corresponding to a %p conversion in the fscanf or fwscanf function (7.19.6.2, 7.24.2.2)." Implementation: If the result is not a valid pointer, the behavior is undefined. ISO Standard: "The value to which the macro errno is set by the fgetpos, fsetpos, or ftell functions on failure (7.19.9.1, 7.19.9.3, 7.19.9.4)." Implementation: If the result exceeds LONG_MAX, errno is set to ERANGE. Other errors are application defined according to the application definition of the lseek function. ISO Standard: "The meaning of the n-char-sequence in a string converted by the strtod, strtof, strtold, wcstod, wcstof, or wcstold function (7.20.1.3, 7.24.4.1.1)." Implementation: No meaning is attached to the sequence. ISO Standard: "Whether or not the strtod, strtof, strtold, wcstod, wcstof, or wcstold function sets errno to ERANGE when underflow occurs (7.20.1.3, 7.24.4.1.1)." Implementation: Yes. ISO Standard: "Whether the calloc, malloc, and realloc functions return a Null Pointer or a pointer to an allocated object when the size requested is zero (7.20.3)." Implementation: A pointer to a statically allocated object is returned. ISO Standard: "Whether open output streams are flushed, open streams are closed, or temporary files are removed when the abort function is called (7.20.4.1)." Implementation: No. ISO Standard: "The termination status returned to the host environment by the abort function (7.20.4.1)." Implementation: By default, there is no host environment. ISO Standard: "The value returned by the system function when its argument is not a Null Pointer (7.20.4.5)." 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 201 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide Implementation: Application defined. ISO Standard: "The local time zone and Daylight Saving Time (7.23.1)." Implementation: Application defined. ISO Standard: "The era for the clock function (7.23.2.1)." Implementation: Application defined. ISO Standard: "The positive value for tm_isdst in a normalized tmx structure (7.23.2.6)." Implementation: 1. ISO Standard: "The replacement string for the %Z specifier to the strftime, strfxtime, wcsftime, and wcsfxtime functions in the "C" locale (7.23.3.5, 7.23.3.6, 7.24.5.1, 7.24.5.2)." Implementation: Unimplemented. ISO Standard: "Whether or when the trigonometric, hyperbolic, base-e exponential, base-e logarithmic, error, and log gamma functions raise the inexact exception in an IEC 60559 conformant implementation (F.9)." Implementation: No. ISO Standard: "Whether the inexact exception may be raised when the rounded result actually does equal the mathematical result in an IEC 60559 conformant implementation (F.9)." Implementation: No. ISO Standard: "Whether the underflow (and inexact) exception may be raised when a result is tiny but not inexact in an IEC 60559 conformant implementation (F.9)." Implementation: No. ISO Standard: "Whether the functions honor the Rounding Direction mode (F.9)." Implementation: The Rounding mode is not forced. 18.18 ARCHITECTURE DS51686E-page 202 ISO Standard: "The values or expressions assigned to the macros specified in the headers <float.h>, <limits.h>, and <stdint.h> (C90 and C99 5.2.4.2, C99 7.18.2, 7.18.3)." Implementation: See Section 6.4.2 "limits.h". ISO Standard: "The number, order, and encoding of bytes in any object (when not explicitly specified in the standard) (C99 6.2.6.1)." Implementation: Little endian, populated from Least Significant Byte first. See Section 6.3 "Data Representation". ISO Standard: "The value of the result of the size of operator (C90 6.3.3.4, C99 6.5.3.4)." Implementation: See Section 6.3 "Data Representation". 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Appendix 19. ASCII Character Set TABLE 19-1: ASCII CHARACTER SET Most Significant Character Least Significant Character 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Hex 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 NUL DLE Space 0 @ P ` p 1 SOH DC1 ! 1 A Q a q 2 STX DC2 " 2 B R b r 3 ETX DC3 # 3 C S c s 4 EOT DC4 $ 4 D T d t 5 ENQ NAK % 5 E U e u 6 ACK SYN & 6 F V f v 7 Bell ETB ' 7 G W g w 8 BS CAN ( 8 H X h x 9 HT EM ) 9 I Y i y A LF SUB * : J Z j z B VT ESC + ; K [ k { C FF FS , < L \ l | D CR GS - = M ] m } E SO RS . > N ^ n ~ F SI US / ? O _ o DEL DS51686E-page 203 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide NOTES: DS51686E-page 204 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Appendix 20. Deprecated Features 20.1 INTRODUCTION The features described below are considered to be obsolete and have been replaced with more advanced functionality. Projects which depend on deprecated features will work properly with versions of the language tools cited. The use of a deprecated feature will result in a warning; programmers are encouraged to revise their projects in order to eliminate any dependency on deprecated features. Support for these features may be removed entirely in future versions of the language tools. Deprecated features covered are: Variables in Specified Registers 20.2 VARIABLES IN SPECIFIED REGISTERS The compiler allows you to put a few global variables into specified hardware registers. Note: Using too many registers, in particular register W0, may impair the ability of the 32-bit compiler to compile. It is not recommended that registers be placed into fixed registers. You can also specify the register in which an ordinary register variable should be allocated. * Global register variables reserve registers throughout the program. This may be useful in programs such as programming language interpreters which have a couple of global variables that are accessed very often. * Local register variables in specific registers do not reserve the registers. The compiler's data flow analysis is capable of determining where the specified registers contain live values, and where they are available for other uses. Stores into local register variables may be deleted when they appear to be unused. References to local register variables may be deleted, moved or simplified. These local variables are sometimes convenient for use with the extended inline assembly (see Chapter 14. "Mixing C/C++ and Assembly Language"), if you want to write one output of the assembler instruction directly into a particular register. (This will work provided the register you specify fits the constraints specified for that operand in the inline assembly statement). 20.2.1 Defining Global Register Variables You can define a global register variable like this: register int *foo asm ("w8"); Here w8 is the name of the register which should be used. Choose a register that is normally saved and restored by function calls (W8-W13), so that library routines will not clobber it. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 205 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide Defining a global register variable in a certain register reserves that register entirely for this use, at least within the current compilation. The register will not be allocated for any other purpose in the functions in the current compilation. The register will not be saved and restored by these functions. Stores into this register are never deleted even if they would appear to be dead, but references may be deleted, moved or simplified. It is not safe to access the global register variables from signal handlers, or from more than one thread of control, because the system library routines may temporarily use the register for other things (unless you recompile them especially for the task at hand). It is not safe for one function that uses a global register variable to call another such function foo by way of a third function lose that was compiled without knowledge of this variable (i.e., in a source file in which the variable wasn't declared). This is because lose might save the register and put some other value there. For example, you can't expect a global register variable to be available in the comparison-function that you pass to qsort, since qsort might have put something else in that register. This problem can be avoided by recompiling qsort with the same global register variable definition. If you want to recompile qsort or other source files that do not actually use your global register variable, so that they will not use that register for any other purpose, then it suffices to specify the compiler command-line option -ffixed-reg. You need not actually add a global register declaration to their source code. A function that can alter the value of a global register variable cannot safely be called from a function compiled without this variable, because it could clobber the value the caller expects to find there on return. Therefore, the function that is the entry point into the part of the program that uses the global register variable must explicitly save and restore the value that belongs to its caller. The library function longjmp will restore to each global register variable the value it had at the time of the setjmp. All global register variable declarations must precede all function definitions. If such a declaration appears after function definitions, the register may be used for other purposes in the preceding functions. Global register variables may not have initial values because an executable file has no means to supply initial contents for a register. 20.2.2 Specifying Registers for Local Variables You can define a local register variable with a specified register like this: register int *foo asm ("w8"); Here w8 is the name of the register that should be used. Note that this is the same syntax used for defining global register variables, but for a local variable it would appear within a function. Defining such a register variable does not reserve the register; it remains available for other uses in places where flow control determines the variable's value is not live. Using this feature may leave the compiler too few available registers to compile certain functions. This option does not ensure that the compiler will generate code that has this variable in the register you specify at all times. You may not code an explicit reference to this register in an asm statement and assume it will always refer to this variable. Assignments to local register variables may be deleted when they appear to be unused. References to local register variables may be deleted, moved or simplified. DS51686E-page 206 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Glossary A Absolute Section A section with a fixed (absolute) address that cannot be changed by the linker. Access Memory PIC18 Only - Special registers on PIC18 devices that allow access regardless of the setting of the Bank Select Register (BSR). Access Entry Points Access entry points provide a way to transfer control across segments to a function which may not be defined at link time. They support the separate linking of boot and secure application segments. Address Value that identifies a location in memory. Alphabetic Character Alphabetic characters are those characters that are letters of the arabic alphabet (a, b, ..., z, A, B, ..., Z). Alphanumeric Alphanumeric characters are comprised of alphabetic characters and decimal digits (0,1, ..., 9). ANDed Breakpoints Set up an ANDed condition for breaking, i.e., breakpoint 1 AND breakpoint 2 must occur at the same time before a program halt. This can only be accomplished if a data breakpoint and a program memory breakpoint occur at the same time. Anonymous Structure 32-bit C/C++ Compiler - An unnamed structure. PIC18 C Compiler - An unnamed structure that is a member of a C union. The members of an anonymous structure may be accessed as if they were members of the enclosing union. For example, in the following code, hi and lo are members of an anonymous structure inside the union caster. union castaway int intval; struct { char lo; //accessible as caster.lo char hi; //accessible as caster.hi }; } caster; ANSI American National Standards Institute is an organization responsible for formulating and approving standards in the United States. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 207 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide Application A set of software and hardware that may be controlled by a PIC(R) microcontroller. Archive/Archiver An archive/library is a collection of relocatable object modules. It is created by assembling multiple source files to object files, and then using the archiver/librarian to combine the object files into one archive/library file. An archive/library can be linked with object modules and other archives/libraries to create executable code. ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange is a character set encoding that uses 7 binary digits to represent each character. It includes upper and lower case letters, digits, symbols and control characters. Assembly/Assembler Assembly is a programming language that describes binary machine code in a symbolic form. An assembler is a language tool that translates assembly language source code into machine code. Assigned Section A section which has been assigned to a target memory block in the linker command file. Asynchronously Multiple events that do not occur at the same time. This is generally used to refer to interrupts that may occur at any time during processor execution. Attribute Characteristics of variables or functions in a C program which are used to describe machine-specific properties. Attribute, Section Characteristics of sections, such as "executable", "readonly", or "data" that can be specified as flags in the assembler .section directive. B Binary The base two numbering system that uses the digits 0-1. The rightmost digit counts ones, the next counts multiples of 2, then 22 = 4, etc. Breakpoint Hardware Breakpoint: An event whose execution will cause a halt. Software Breakpoint: An address where execution of the firmware will halt. Usually achieved by a special break instruction. Build Compile and link all the source files for an application. C C\C++ C is a general-purpose programming language which features economy of expression, modern control flow and data structures, and a rich set of operators. C++ is the object-oriented version of C. Calibration Memory A special function register or registers used to hold values for calibration of a PIC microcontroller on-board RC oscillator or other device peripherals. DS51686E-page 208 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Glossary Central Processing Unit The part of a device that is responsible for fetching the correct instruction for execution, decoding that instruction, and then executing that instruction. When necessary, it works in conjunction with the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) to complete the execution of the instruction. It controls the program memory address bus, the data memory address bus, and accesses to the stack. Clean Clean removes all intermediary project files, such as object, hex and debug files, for the active project. These files are recreated from other files when a project is built. COFF Common Object File Format. An object file of this format contains machine code, debugging and other information. Command Line Interface A means of communication between a program and its user based solely on textual input and output. Compiler A program that translates a source file written in a high-level language into machine code. Conditional Assembly Assembly language code that is included or omitted based on the assembly-time value of a specified expression. Conditional Compilation The act of compiling a program fragment only if a certain constant expression, specified by a preprocessor directive, is true. Configuration Bits Special-purpose bits programmed to set PIC microcontroller modes of operation. A Configuration bit may or may not be preprogrammed. Control Directives Directives in assembly language code that cause code to be included or omitted based on the assembly-time value of a specified expression. CPU See Central Processing Unit. Cross Reference File A file that references a table of symbols and a list of files that references the symbol. If the symbol is defined, the first file listed is the location of the definition. The remaining files contain references to the symbol. D Data Directives Data directives are those that control the assembler's allocation of program or data memory and provide a way to refer to data items symbolically; that is, by meaningful names. Data Memory On Microchip MCU and DSC devices, data memory (RAM) is comprised of General Purpose Registers (GPRs) and Special Function Registers (SFRs). Some devices also have EEPROM data memory. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 209 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide Debug/Debugger See ICE/ICD. Debugging Information Compiler and assembler options that, when selected, provide varying degrees of information used to debug application code. See compiler or assembler documentation for details on selecting debug options. Deprecated Features Features that are still supported for legacy reasons, but will eventually be phased out and no longer used. Device Programmer A tool used to program electrically programmable semiconductor devices such as microcontrollers. Digital Signal Controller A digital signal controller (DSC) is a microcontroller device with digital signal processing capability, i.e., Microchip dsPIC(R) DSC devices. Digital Signal Processing/Digital Signal Processor Digital Signal Processing (DSP) is the computer manipulation of digital signals, commonly analog signals (sound or image) which have been converted to digital form (sampled). A digital signal processor is a microprocessor that is designed for use in digital signal processing. Directives Statements in source code that provide control of the language tool's operation. Download Download is the process of sending data from a host to another device, such as an emulator, programmer or target board. DWARF Debug With Arbitrary Record Format. DWARF is a debug information format for ELF files. E EEPROM Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. A special type of PROM that can be erased electrically. Data is written or erased one byte at a time. EEPROM retains its contents even when power is turned off. ELF Executable and Linking Format. An object file of this format contains machine code. Debugging and other information is specified in with DWARF. ELF/DWARF provide better debugging of optimized code than COFF. Emulation/Emulator See ICE/ICD. Endianness The ordering of bytes in a multi-byte object. Environment MPLAB PM3 - A folder containing files on how to program a device. This folder can be transferred to a SD/MMC card. DS51686E-page 210 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Glossary Epilogue A portion of compiler-generated code that is responsible for deallocating stack space, restoring registers and performing any other machine-specific requirement specified in the runtime model. This code executes after any user code for a given function, immediately prior to the function return. EPROM Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. A programmable read-only memory that can be erased usually by exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Error/Error File An error reports a problem that makes it impossible to continue processing your program. When possible, an error identifies the source file name and line number where the problem is apparent. An error file contains error messages and diagnostics generated by a language tool. Event A description of a bus cycle which may include address, data, pass count, external input, cycle type (fetch, R/W), and time stamp. Events are used to describe triggers, breakpoints and interrupts. Executable Code Software that is ready to be loaded for execution. Export Send data out of the MPLAB IDE in a standardized format. Expressions Combinations of constants and/or symbols separated by arithmetic or logical operators. Extended Microcontroller Mode In extended microcontroller mode, on-chip program memory as well as external memory is available. Execution automatically switches to external if the program memory address is greater than the internal memory space of the PIC18 device. Extended Mode (PIC18 MCUs) In Extended mode, the compiler will utilize the extended instructions (i.e., ADDFSR, ADDULNK, CALLW, MOVSF, MOVSS, PUSHL, SUBFSR and SUBULNK) and the indexed with literal offset addressing. External Label A label that has external linkage. External Linkage A function or variable has external linkage if it can be referenced from outside the module in which it is defined. External Symbol A symbol for an identifier which has external linkage. This may be a reference or a definition. External Symbol Resolution A process performed by the linker in which external symbol definitions from all input modules are collected in an attempt to resolve all external symbol references. Any external symbol references which do not have a corresponding definition cause a linker error to be reported. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 211 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide External Input Line An external input signal logic probe line (TRIGIN) for setting an event based upon external signals. External RAM Off-chip Read/Write memory. F Fatal Error An error that will halt compilation immediately. No further messages will be produced. File Registers On-chip data memory, including General Purpose Registers (GPRs) and Special Function Registers (SFRs). Filter Determine by selection what data is included/excluded in a trace display or data file. Flash A type of EEPROM where data is written or erased in blocks instead of bytes. FNOP Forced No Operation. A forced NOP cycle is the second cycle of a two-cycle instruction. Since the PIC microcontroller architecture is pipelined, it prefetches the next instruction in the physical address space while it is executing the current instruction. However, if the current instruction changes the program counter, this prefetched instruction is explicitly ignored, causing a forced NOP cycle. Frame Pointer A pointer that references the location on the stack that separates the stack-based arguments from the stack-based local variables. Provides a convenient base from which to access local variables and other values for the current function. Free-Standing An implementation that accepts any strictly conforming program that does not use complex types and in which the use of the features specified in the library clause (ANSI `89 standard clause 7) is confined to the contents of the standard headers <float.h>, <iso646.h>, <limits.h>, <stdarg.h>, <stdbool.h>, <stddef.h> and <stdint.h>. G GPR General Purpose Register. The portion of device data memory (RAM) available for general use. H Halt A stop of program execution. Executing Halt is the same as stopping at a breakpoint. Heap An area of memory used for dynamic memory allocation where blocks of memory are allocated and freed in an arbitrary order determined at runtime. Hex Code/Hex File Hex code is executable instructions stored in a hexadecimal format code. Hex code is contained in a hex file. DS51686E-page 212 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Glossary Hexadecimal The base 16 numbering system that uses the digits 0-9 plus the letters A-F (or a-f). The digits A-F represent hexadecimal digits with values of (decimal) 10 to 15. The rightmost digit counts ones, the next counts multiples of 16, then 162 = 256, etc. High Level Language A language for writing programs that is further removed from the processor than assembly. I ICE/ICD In-Circuit Emulator/In-Circuit Debugger: A hardware tool that debugs and programs a target device. An emulator has more features than an debugger, such as trace. In-Circuit Emulation/In-Circuit Debug: The act of emulating or debugging with an in-circuit emulator or debugger. -ICE/-ICD: A device (MCU or DSC) with on-board in-circuit emulation or debug circuitry. This device is always mounted on a header board and used to debug with an in-circuit emulator or debugger. ICSPTM Programming Capability In-Circuit Serial ProgrammingTM programming capability. A method of programming Microchip embedded devices using serial communication and a minimum number of device pins. IDE Integrated Development Environment, as in MPLAB IDE. Identifier A function or variable name. IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Import Bring data into the MPLAB IDE from an outside source, such as from a hex file. Initialized Data Data which is defined with an initial value. In C, int myVar=5; defines a variable which will reside in an initialized data section. Instruction Set The collection of machine language instructions that a particular processor understands. Instructions A sequence of bits that tells a central processing unit to perform a particular operation and can contain data to be used in the operation. Internal Linkage A function or variable has internal linkage if it can not be accessed from outside the module in which it is defined. International Organization for Standardization An organization that sets standards in many businesses and technologies, including computing and communications. Also known as ISO. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 213 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide Interrupt A signal to the CPU that suspends the execution of a running application and transfers control to an Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) so that the event may be processed. Upon completion of the ISR, normal execution of the application resumes. Interrupt Handler A routine that processes special code when an interrupt occurs. Interrupt Service Request (IRQ) An event which causes the processor to temporarily suspend normal instruction execution and to start executing an interrupt handler routine. Some processors have several interrupt request events allowing different priority interrupts. Interrupt Service Routine (ISR) Language tools - A function that handles an interrupt. MPLAB IDE - User-generated code that is entered when an interrupt occurs. The location of the code in program memory will usually depend on the type of interrupt that has occurred. Interrupt Vector Address of an interrupt service routine or interrupt handler. L L-value An expression that refers to an object that can be examined and/or modified. An l-value expression is used on the left-hand side of an assignment. Latency The time between an event and its response. Library/Librarian See Archive/Archiver. Linker A language tool that combines object files and libraries to create executable code, resolving references from one module to another. Linker Script Files Linker script files are the command files of a linker. They define linker options and describe available memory on the target platform. Listing Directives Listing directives are those directives that control the assembler listing file format. They allow the specification of titles, pagination and other listing control. Listing File A listing file is an ASCII text file that shows the machine code generated for each C/C++ source statement, assembly instruction, assembler directive, or macro encountered in a source file. Little Endian A data ordering scheme for multibyte data whereby the least significant byte is stored at the lower addresses. DS51686E-page 214 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Glossary Local Label A local label is one that is defined inside a macro with the LOCAL directive. These labels are particular to a given instance of a macro's instantiation. In other words, the symbols and labels that are declared as local are no longer accessible after the ENDM macro is encountered. Logic Probes Up to 14 logic probes can be connected to some Microchip emulators. The logic probes provide external trace inputs, trigger output signal, +5V, and a common ground. Loop-Back Test Board Used to test the functionality of the MPLAB REAL ICETM in-circuit emulator. LVDS Low Voltage Differential Signaling. A low noise, low-power, low amplitude method for high-speed (gigabits per second) data transmission over copper wire. With standard I/0 signaling, data storage is contingent upon the actual voltage level. Voltage level can be affected by wire length (longer wires increase resistance, which lowers voltage). But with LVDS, data storage is distinguished only by positive and negative voltage values, not the voltage level. Therefore, data can travel over greater lengths of wire while maintaining a clear and consistent data stream. Source: http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/L/LVDS.html. M Machine Code The representation of a computer program that is actually read and interpreted by the processor. A program in binary machine code consists of a sequence of machine instructions (possibly interspersed with data). The collection of all possible instructions for a particular processor is known as its "instruction set". Machine Language A set of instructions for a specific central processing unit, designed to be usable by a processor without being translated. Macro Macro instruction. An instruction that represents a sequence of instructions in abbreviated form. Macro Directives Directives that control the execution and data allocation within macro body definitions. Makefile Export to a file the instructions to Make the project. Use this file to Make your project outside of MPLAB IDE, i.e., with a make. Make Project A command that rebuilds an application, recompiling only those source files that have changed since the last complete compilation. MCU Microcontroller Unit. An abbreviation for microcontroller. Also C. Memory Model For C compilers, a representation of the memory available to the application. For the PIC18 C compiler, a description that specifies the size of pointers that point to program memory. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 215 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide Message Text displayed to alert you to potential problems in language tool operation. A message will not stop operation. Microcontroller A highly integrated chip that contains a CPU, RAM, program memory, I/O ports and timers. Microcontroller Mode One of the possible program memory configurations of PIC18 microcontrollers. In microcontroller mode, only internal execution is allowed. Thus, only the on-chip program memory is available in microcontroller mode. Microprocessor Mode One of the possible program memory configurations of PIC18 microcontrollers. In microprocessor mode, the on-chip program memory is not used. The entire program memory is mapped externally. Mnemonics Text instructions that can be translated directly into machine code. Also referred to as opcodes. MPASMTM Assembler Microchip Technology's relocatable macro assembler for PIC microcontroller devices, KeeLoq(R) devices and Microchip memory devices. MPLAB Language Tool for Device Microchip's C compilers, assemblers and linkers for specified devices. Select the type of language tool based on the device you will be using for your application, e.g., if you will be creating C code on a PIC18 MCU, select the MPLAB C Compiler for PIC18 MCUs. MPLAB ICD Microchip's in-circuit debuggers that works with MPLAB IDE. See ICE/ICD. MPLAB IDE Microchip's Integrated Development Environment. MPLAB IDE comes with an editor, project manager and simulator. MPLAB PM3 A device programmer from Microchip. Programs PIC18 microcontrollers and dsPIC digital signal controllers. Can be used with MPLAB IDE or stand-alone. Replaces PRO MATE II. MPLAB REAL ICE In-Circuit Emulator Microchip's next-generation in-circuit emulators that works with MPLAB IDE. See ICE/ICD. MPLAB SIM Microchip's simulator that works with MPLAB IDE in support of PIC MCU and dsPIC DSC devices. MPLIBTM Object Librarian Microchip's librarian that can work with MPLAB IDE. MPLIB librarian is an object librarian for use with COFF object modules created using either MPASM assembler (mpasm or mpasmwin v2.0) or MPLAB C18 C compiler. DS51686E-page 216 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Glossary MPLINKTM Object Linker MPLINK linker is an object linker for the Microchip MPASM assembler and the Microchip C18 C compiler. MPLINK linker also may be used with the Microchip MPLIB librarian. MPLINK linker is designed to be used with MPLAB IDE, though it does not have to be. MRU Most Recently Used. Refers to files and windows available to be selected from MPLAB IDE main pull down menus. N Native Data Size For Native trace, the size of the variable used in a Watch window must be of the same size as the selected device's data memory: bytes for PIC18 devices and words for 16-bit devices. Nesting Depth The maximum level to which macros can include other macros. Node MPLAB IDE project component. Non-Extended Mode (PIC18 MCUs) In Non-Extended mode, the compiler will not utilize the extended instructions nor the indexed with literal offset addressing. Non Real Time Refers to the processor at a breakpoint or executing single-step instructions or MPLAB IDE being run in simulator mode. Non-Volatile Storage A storage device whose contents are preserved when its power is off. NOP No Operation. An instruction that has no effect when executed except to advance the program counter. O Object Code/Object File Object code is the machine code generated by an assembler or compiler. An object file is a file containing machine code and possibly debug information. It may be immediately executable or it may be relocatable, requiring linking with other object files, e.g., libraries, to produce a complete executable program. Object File Directives Directives that are used only when creating an object file. Octal The base 8 number system that only uses the digits 0-7. The rightmost digit counts ones, the next digit counts multiples of 8, then 82 = 64, etc. Off-Chip Memory Off-chip memory refers to the memory selection option for the PIC18 device where memory may reside on the target board, or where all program memory may be supplied by the emulator. The Memory tab accessed from Options>Development Mode provides the Off-Chip Memory selection dialog box. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 217 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide Opcodes Operational Codes. See Mnemonics. Operators Symbols, like the plus sign `+' and the minus sign `-', that are used when forming well-defined expressions. Each operator has an assigned precedence that is used to determine order of evaluation. OTP One Time Programmable. EPROM devices that are not in windowed packages. Since EPROM needs ultraviolet light to erase its memory, only windowed devices are erasable. P Pass Counter A counter that decrements each time an event (such as the execution of an instruction at a particular address) occurs. When the pass count value reaches zero, the event is satisfied. You can assign the Pass Counter to break and trace logic, and to any sequential event in the complex trigger dialog. PC Personal Computer or Program Counter. PC Host Any PC running a supported Windows operating system. Persistent Data Data that is never cleared or initialized. Its intended use is so that an application can preserve data across a device reset. Phantom Byte An unimplemented byte in the dsPIC DSC architecture that is used when treating the 24-bit instruction word as if it were a 32-bit instruction word. Phantom bytes appear in dsPIC DSC hex files. PIC MCUs PIC microcontrollers (MCUs) refers to all Microchip microcontroller families. PICkitTM 2 and 3 Programmer/Debugger Microchip's developmental device programmers with debug capability through Debug Express. See the Readme files for each tool to see which devices are supported. Plug-ins The MPLAB IDE has both built-in components and plug-in modules to configure the system for a variety of software and hardware tools. Several plug-in tools may be found under the Tools menu. Pod The enclosure for an in-circuit emulator or debugger. Other names are "Puck", if the enclosure is round, and "Probe", not be confused with logic probes. Power-on-Reset Emulation A software randomization process that writes random values in data RAM areas to simulate uninitialized values in RAM upon initial power application. Pragma A directive that has meaning to a specific compiler. Often a pragma is used to convey implementation-defined information to the compiler. MPLAB C30 uses attributes to convey this information. DS51686E-page 218 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Glossary Precedence Rules that define the order of evaluation in expressions. Production Programmer A production programmer is a programming tool that has resources designed in to program devices rapidly. It has the capability to program at various voltage levels and completely adheres to the programming specification. Programming a device as fast as possible is of prime importance in a production environment where time is of the essence as the application circuit moves through the assembly line. Profile For MPLAB SIM simulator, a summary listing of executed stimulus by register. Program Counter The location that contains the address of the instruction that is currently executing. Program Counter Unit 32-bit assembler - A conceptual representation of the layout of program memory. The program counter increments by 2 for each instruction word. In an executable section, 2 program counter units are equivalent to 3 bytes. In a read-only section, 2 program counter units are equivalent to 2 bytes. Program Memory MPLAB IDE - The memory area in a device where instructions are stored. Also, the memory in the emulator or simulator containing the downloaded target application firmware. 32-bit assembler/compiler - The memory area in a device where instructions are stored. Project A project contains the files needed to build an application (source code, linker script files, etc.) along with their associations to various build tools and build options. Prologue A portion of compiler-generated code that is responsible for allocating stack space, preserving registers and performing any other machine-specific requirement specified in the runtime model. This code executes before any user code for a given function. Prototype System A term referring to a user's target application, or target board. PWM Signals Pulse Width Modulation Signals. Certain PIC MCU devices have a PWM peripheral. Q Qualifier An address or an address range used by the Pass Counter or as an event before another operation in a complex trigger. R Radix The number base, hex, or decimal, used in specifying an address. RAM Random Access Memory (Data Memory). Memory in which information can be accessed in any order. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 219 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide Raw Data The binary representation of code or data associated with a section. Read Only Memory Memory hardware that allows fast access to permanently stored data but prevents addition to or modification of the data. Real Time When an in-circuit emulator or debugger is released from the halt state, the processor runs in Real Time mode and behaves exactly as the normal chip would behave. In Real Time mode, the real time trace buffer of an emulator is enabled and constantly captures all selected cycles, and all break logic is enabled. In an in-circuit emulator or debugger, the processor executes in real time until a valid breakpoint causes a halt, or until the user halts the execution. In the simulator, real time simply means execution of the microcontroller instructions as fast as they can be simulated by the host CPU. Real-Time Watch A Watch window where the variables change in real-time as the application is run. See individual tool documentation to determine how to set up a real-time watch. Not all tools support real-time watches. Recursive Calls A function that calls itself, either directly or indirectly. Recursion The concept that a function or macro, having been defined, can call itself. Great care should be taken when writing recursive macros; it is easy to get caught in an infinite loop where there will be no exit from the recursion. Reentrant A function that may have multiple, simultaneously active instances. This may happen due to either direct or indirect recursion or through execution during interrupt processing. Relaxation The process of converting an instruction to an identical, but smaller instruction. This is useful for saving on code size. MPLAB ASM30 currently knows how to RELAX a CALL instruction into an RCALL instruction. This is done when the symbol that is being called is within +/- 32k instruction words from the current instruction. Relocatable An object whose address has not been assigned to a fixed location in memory. Relocatable Section 32-bit assembler - A section whose address is not fixed (absolute). The linker assigns addresses to relocatable sections through a process called relocation. Relocation A process performed by the linker in which absolute addresses are assigned to relocatable sections and all symbols in the relocatable sections are updated to their new addresses. ROM Read Only Memory (Program Memory). Memory that cannot be modified. Run The command that releases the emulator from halt, allowing it to run the application code and change or respond to I/O in real time. DS51686E-page 220 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Glossary Run-time Model Describes the use of target architecture resources. S Scenario For MPLAB SIM simulator, a particular setup for stimulus control. Section A portion of an application located at a specific address of memory. Section Attribute A characteristic ascribed to a section (e.g., an access section). Sequenced Breakpoints Breakpoints that occur in a sequence. Sequence execution of breakpoints is bottom-up; the last breakpoint in the sequence occurs first. Serialized Quick Turn Programming Serialization allows you to program a serial number into each microcontroller device that the Device Programmer programs. This number can be used as an entry code, password or ID number. Shell The MPASM assembler shell is a prompted input interface to the macro assembler. There are two MPASM assembler shells: one for the DOS version and one for the Windows version. Simulator A software program that models the operation of devices. Single Step This command steps though code, one instruction at a time. After each instruction, MPLAB IDE updates register windows, watch variables, and status displays so you can analyze and debug instruction execution. You can also single step C compiler source code, but instead of executing single instructions, MPLAB IDE will execute all assembly level instructions generated by the line of the high level C statement. Skew The information associated with the execution of an instruction appears on the processor bus at different times. For example, the executed opcodes appears on the bus as a fetch during the execution of the previous instruction, the source data address and value and the destination data address appear when the opcodes is actually executed, and the destination data value appears when the next instruction is executed. The trace buffer captures the information that is on the bus at one instance. Therefore, one trace buffer entry will contain execution information for three instructions. The number of captured cycles from one piece of information to another for a single instruction execution is referred to as the skew. Skid When a hardware breakpoint is used to halt the processor, one or more additional instructions may be executed before the processor halts. The number of extra instructions executed after the intended breakpoint is referred to as the skid. Source Code The form in which a computer program is written by the programmer. Source code is written in a formal programming language which can be translated into machine code or executed by an interpreter. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 221 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide Source File An ASCII text file containing source code. Special Function Registers (SFRs) The portion of data memory (RAM) dedicated to registers that control I/O processor functions, I/O status, timers or other modes or peripherals. SQTPsm See Serialized Quick Turn Programming. Stack, Hardware Locations in PIC microcontroller where the return address is stored when a function call is made. Stack, Software Memory used by an application for storing return addresses, function parameters, and local variables. This memory is typically managed by the compiler when developing code in a high-level language. MPLAB Starter Kit for Device Microchip's starter kits contains everything needed to begin exploring the specified device. View a working application and then debug and program you own changes. Static RAM or SRAM Static Random Access Memory. Program memory you can read/write on the target board that does not need refreshing frequently. Status Bar The Status Bar is located on the bottom of the MPLAB IDE window and indicates such current information as cursor position, development mode and device, and active tool bar. Step Into This command is the same as Single Step. Step Into (as opposed to Step Over) follows a CALL instruction into a subroutine. Step Over Step Over allows you to debug code without stepping into subroutines. When stepping over a CALL instruction, the next breakpoint will be set at the instruction after the CALL. If for some reason the subroutine gets into an endless loop or does not return properly, the next breakpoint will never be reached. The Step Over command is the same as Single Step except for its handling of CALL instructions. Step Out Step Out allows you to step out of a subroutine which you are currently stepping through. This command executes the rest of the code in the subroutine and then stops execution at the return address to the subroutine. Stimulus Input to the simulator, i.e., data generated to exercise the response of simulation to external signals. Often the data is put into the form of a list of actions in a text file. Stimulus may be asynchronous, synchronous (pin), clocked and register. Stopwatch A counter for measuring execution cycles. Storage Class Determines the lifetime of the memory associated with the identified object. DS51686E-page 222 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Glossary Storage Qualifier Indicates special properties of the objects being declared (e.g., const). Symbol A symbol is a general purpose mechanism for describing the various pieces which comprise a program. These pieces include function names, variable names, section names, file names, struct/enum/union tag names, etc. Symbols in MPLAB IDE refer mainly to variable names, function names and assembly labels. The value of a symbol after linking is its value in memory. Symbol, Absolute Represents an immediate value such as a definition through the assembly .equ directive. System Window Control The system window control is located in the upper left corner of windows and some dialogs. Clicking on this control usually pops up a menu that has the items "Minimize," "Maximize," and "Close." T Target Refers to user hardware. Target Application Software residing on the target board. Target Board The circuitry and programmable device that makes up the target application. Target Processor The microcontroller device on the target application board. Template Lines of text that you build for inserting into your files at a later time. The MPLAB Editor stores templates in template files. Tool Bar A row or column of icons that you can click on to execute MPLAB IDE functions. Trace An emulator or simulator function that logs program execution. The emulator logs program execution into its trace buffer which is uploaded to MPLAB IDE's trace window. Trace Memory Trace memory contained within the emulator. Trace memory is sometimes called the trace buffer. Trace Macro A macro that will provide trace information from emulator data. Since this is a software trace, the macro must be added to code, the code must be recompiled or reassembled, and the target device must be programmed with this code before trace will work. Trigger Output Trigger output refers to an emulator output signal that can be generated at any address or address range, and is independent of the trace and breakpoint settings. Any number of trigger output points can be set. 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. DS51686E-page 223 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide Trigraphs Three-character sequences, all starting with ??, that are defined by ISO C as replacements for single characters. U Unassigned Section A section which has not been assigned to a specific target memory block in the linker command file. The linker must find a target memory block in which to allocate an unassigned section. Uninitialized Data Data which is defined without an initial value. In C, int myVar; defines a variable which will reside in an uninitialized data section. Upload The Upload function transfers data from a tool, such as an emulator or programmer, to the host PC or from the target board to the emulator. USB Universal Serial Bus. An external peripheral interface standard for communication between a computer and external peripherals over a cable using bi-serial transmission. USB 1.0/1.1 supports data transfer rates of 12 Mbps. Also referred to as high-speed USB, USB 2.0 supports data rates up to 480 Mbps. V Vector The memory locations that an application will jump to when either a reset or interrupt occurs. W Warning MPLAB IDE - An alert that is provided to warn you of a situation that would cause physical damage to a device, software file, or equipment. 32-bit assembler/compiler - Warnings report conditions that may indicate a problem, but do not halt processing. In MPLAB C30, warning messages report the source file name and line number, but include the text `warning:' to distinguish them from error messages. Watch Variable A variable that you may monitor during a debugging session in a Watch window. Watch Window Watch windows contain a list of watch variables that are updated at each breakpoint. Watchdog Timer (WDT) A timer on a PIC microcontroller that resets the processor after a selectable length of time. The WDT is enabled or disabled and set up using Configuration bits. Workbook For MPLAB SIM stimulator, a setup for generation of SCL stimulus. DS51686E-page 224 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ COMPILER USER'S GUIDE Index Symbols .app_excpt Section ......................................... 182 .bev_excpt Section ......................................... 182 .bss ..................................................................... 147 .bss Section ........................................................ 188 .config_address .......................................... 180 .data .................................................................. 147 .data Section ..................................................... 186 .dbg_data Section ..................................... 186 .dbg_excpt Section ......................................... 182 .got Section ......................................................... 186 .h files, see header files .heap .................................................................. 188 .lit4 .................................................................. 147 .lit4 Section ..................................................... 187 .lit8 .................................................................. 147 .lit8 Section ..................................................... 187 .ramfunc ........................................................... 148 .ramfunc Section .............................................. 189 .reset Section ................................................... 181 .rodata Section ................................................ 185 .sbss .................................................................. 147 .sbss Section ..................................................... 188 .sbss2 Section ................................................... 186 .sdata ................................................................ 147 .sdata Section ................................................... 187 .sdata2 Section ................................................ 185 .stack Section ................................................... 188 .startup Section .............................................. 183 .text Section ..................................................... 183 .vector_n Sections .......................................... 183 "On Bootstrap" Procedure ..................................... 154 # preprocessor operator ........................................ 170 ## preprocessor operator ...................................... 170 #define ............................................................... 78 #ident .................................................................. 84 #if ......................................................................... 71 #include ........................................................78, 79 #line .................................................................... 80 #pragma ............................................................... 68 #pragma config ............................................. 171 #pragma interrupt ..................................... 171 #pragma vector ............................................. 171 Numerics -msmart-io= ...................................................... 61 PIC32MX Device-Specific Options -msmart-io= ............................................... 61 0b binary radix specifier ........................................ 102 32-Bit C Compiler Macros ..................................... 172 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. A a0-a3 .................................................................. 141 absolute functions ................................................... 29 absolute variables ................................................... 29 addressr Attribute ............................................. 123 alias (symbol) ............................................. 124 __align qualifier ....................................................... 34 aligned (n) .............................................105, 106 always_inline ............................................... 124 anonymous unions .................................................. 99 -ansi ................................................. 63, 64, 80, 130 ANSI C Standard conformance .................................................... 91 implementation-defined behavior ..................... 92 ANSI C standard ..................................................... 18 ANSI C, Strict .......................................................... 65 ANSI Standard Library Support ............................... 14 arrays .................................................................... 111 as dummy pointer targets ............................... 101 initialization ..................................................... 103 ASCII Character Set .............................................. 203 ASCII characters extended ........................................................ 103 asm ....................................................................... 161 asm C statement ..................................................... 42 assembly code mixing with C .................................................. 161 assembly list files .................................................... 59 Assembly Options ................................................... 81 -Wa .................................................................. 81 attribute ......................................................... 105 Attribute, Function address ...................................................... 123 alias (symbol) ...................................... 124 always_inline ........................................ 124 at_vector .................................................. 124 const ........................................................... 124 deprecated ............................................... 124 far ................................................................ 124 format (type, format_index, first_to_check) ..................... 124 format_arg (index) ............................ 125 interrupt .................................................. 125 longcall .................................................... 125 malloc ......................................................... 125 mips16 ......................................................... 125 naked ........................................................... 125 near .............................................................. 125 noinline .................................................... 125 no_instrument_function .................... 84 nomips16 .................................................... 125 DS51686E-page 225 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide nonnull (index, ...) ....................... 125 noreturn ...............................................70, 126 pure .............................................................. 126 ramfunc) .................................................... 126 section (name) ...................................... 126 unique_section ...................................... 126 unused ......................................................... 126 used .............................................................. 127 vector ......................................................... 127 warn_unused_result ............................ 127 weak .............................................................. 127 Attribute, Variable aligned (n) ......................................105, 106 cleanup (function) ............................ 106 deprecated ............................................... 106 packed ......................................................... 106 section ("name") ................................. 106 space ........................................................... 107 unique_section ...................................... 107 unused ......................................................... 107 weak .............................................................. 107 at_vector Attribute ................................. 124 auto variables ..............................................110, 112 initilization ....................................................... 147 memory allocation ...................................112-113 Automatic Variable .............................................68, 69 -aux-info ......................................................63, 64 B -B .......................................................................47, 82 Bad Virtual Address Register ................................ 149 BadVAddr. See Bad Virtual Address Register __bank qualifier ....................................................... 33 _BEV_EXCPT_ADDR ...................................179, 182 biased exponent ...................................................... 96 binary constants C code ............................................................ 102 Bit Fields .................................................................. 64 bit-fields .................................................. 26, 27, 98-99 bitwise complement operator ................................. 118 BMXDKPBA ........................................................... 148 _bmxdkpba_address ...............................148, 155 BMXDUDBA ........................................................... 148 _bmxdudba_address ...............................148, 155 BMXDUPBA ........................................................... 148 _bmxdupba_address ...............................148, 155 Boot Memory Region kseg0_boot_mem ...................................... 179 kseg1_boot_mem ...................................... 179 Bootstrap Exception .............................................. 141 _bootstrap_exception_handler ........... 156 _bootstrap_exception_handler() ...... 141 Branch Delay .................................................. 151 _bss_begin ...................................................... 188 _bss_end ........................................................... 188 Bus Matrix Register ............................................... 148 BMXDKPBA .................................................... 148 BMXDUDBA .................................................... 148 BMXDUPBA .................................................... 148 DS51686E-page 226 C -C ............................................................................ 78 -c ...................................................................... 62, 81 C Dialect Control Options .................................. 63, 64 -ansi ....................................................... 63, 64 -aux-info .............................................. 63, 64 -ffreestanding ........................................ 63 -fno-asm ................................................ 63, 64 -fno-builtin ....................................... 63, 64 -fno-signed-bitfields ....................... 64 -fno-unsigned-bitfields .................. 64 -fsigned-bitfields .............................. 64 -fsigned-char .......................................... 64 -funsigned-bitfields ......................... 64 -funsigned-char ..................................... 64 -fwritable-strings .............................. 64 -traditional ........................................... 130 -ffreestanding ........................................ 64 C Stack Usage ....................................................... 112 C standard libraries ................................................. 56 __C32_VERSION__ ........................................... 173 Call Main ................................................................ 155 calloc ................................................................ 114 Case Ranges ......................................................... 120 Cast ..............................................................68, 69, 70 casting ................................................................... 117 Cause ................................................................... 151 Cause Register ...................................................... 151 Cause Register .................................................... 150 CCI .......................................................................... 19 char .................................................... 64, 65, 94, 128 char data types ........................................................ 24 character constants in C ................................................................. 103 CHAR_BIT ............................................................. 94 CHAR_MAX ............................................................. 94 CHAR_MIN ............................................................. 94 cleanup (function) ................................... 106 clearing variables ................................................... 147 Code Generation Conventions Options ................... 83 -fargument-alias ................................... 83 -fargument-noalias .............................. 83 -fargument-noalias-global ............. 83 -fcall-saved ............................................. 83 -fcall-used ............................................... 83 -ffixed ......................................................... 83 -finstrument-functions ..................... 84 -fno-ident ................................................. 84 -fno-short-double ................................. 84 -fno-verbose-asm ................................... 84 -fpack-struct .......................................... 84 -fpcc-struct-return ............................ 84 -fshort-enums .......................................... 84 -fverbose-asm .......................................... 84 -fvolatile ................................................. 84 -fvolatile-global ................................. 84 -fvolatile-static ................................. 84 Code Size, Reduce ............................................ 72, 73 Command Line Option, Compiler -fdate-sections ................................... 106 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Index -ffunction-sections ......................... 126 -fshort-enums ........................................ 197 -funsigned-bitfields ....................... 197 -funsigned-char ..................................... 94 -iquote ...................................................... 198 -l .................................................................... 81 -mdebugger ........................................182, 186 -mips16 .................................................56, 125 -mips16 -mno-float .............................. 56 -mlong-calls .......................................... 125 -mno-float ................................................. 56 -mprocessor ............................................. 177 -o ex1.out ................................................. 50 -O3 .................................................................. 56 -O3 -mips16 ............................................... 56 -O3 -mips16 -mno-float .................... 56 -O3 -mno-float ....................................... 56 -Os .................................................................. 56 -Os -mips16 ............................................... 56 -Os -mips16 -mno-float .................... 56 -Os -mno-float ....................................... 56 -Wall ............................................................. 68 -Wnonnull ................................................. 125 Command Line Option, Linker --defsym .................................................... 177 --defsym_min_stack_size ................ 112 -L .................................................................. 177 Command-Line Simulator ........................................ 14 Comments ..........................................................65, 78 common compiler interface ..................................... 19 Common Subexpression Elimination ........... 73, 74, 75 Common Subexpressions ....................................... 76 Compare ............................................................. 150 Compare Register ................................................. 150 Compare Register ............................................... 150 Compiler Driver ..........................................................45, 82 compiler operating mode ......................................... 13 Conditional Expression ......................................... 120 Conditionals with Omitted Operands ..................... 120 Config ................................................................ 152 Config Register ..................................................... 152 Config1 ............................................................. 152 Config1 Register ................................................... 152 Config2 ............................................................. 153 Config2 Register ................................................... 153 Config3 ............................................................. 153 Config3 Register ................................................... 153 confign ............................................................. 180 Configuration Memory Region config3, config2, config1, config0 ........................................ 179 Configuration Pragma ........................................86, 87 Configuration Words ..........................................86, 87 const .................................................................. 124 const objects initialization .................................................... 104 const objects storage location .............................................. 113 const qualifier ........................................................ 104 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. constants C specifiers .................................................... 102 character ........................................................ 103 string, see string literals ................................. 103 conversion between types ..................................... 117 Count ...........................................................149, 150 Count Register ...................................................... 150 Count Register .................................................... 150 CountDM ............................................................... 150 CP0 ....................................................................... 149 CP0 Access Macros ................................................ 89 CP0 Registers ....................................................... 149 Customer Support ................................................... 12 D -D .......................................................................78, 80 data memory ......................................................... 110 Data Memory Region kseg1_data_mem ...................................... 180 Data Memory Space .............................................. 114 data types floating point ..................................................... 97 size of ..........................................................23, 97 _data_end ......................................................... 187 DBD. See Debug Branch Delay _DBG_CODE_ADDR ......................................179, 182 _DBG_EXCPT_ADDR ...................................179, 182 -dD ......................................................................... 78 Debug .................................................................. 153 Debug Branch Delay ............................................. 154 Debug Exception Program Counter ...................... 154 Debug Exception Save Register ........................... 154 Debug Executive Memory Region debug_exec_mem ...................................... 179 Debug Register ..................................................... 153 Debug Register .................................................... 150 Debug Sections ..................................................... 190 Debug2 ................................................................ 154 Debug2 Register ................................................... 154 debug_exec_mem ............................................. 182 _DEBUGGER ..................................................182, 186 Debugging Information ............................................ 72 Debugging Options .................................................. 72 -g .................................................................... 72 -Q .................................................................... 72 -save-temps ............................................... 72 Defining Global Register Variables ....................... 205 --defsym ........................................................... 177 --defsym _ebase_address=A .................. 152 --defsym _min_heap_size=M .................. 144 --defsym _min_stack_size=N ................ 144 --defsym, _min_heap_size ..................... 114 --defsym_min_stack_size ....................... 112 DEPC. See Debug Exception Program Counter __deprecate qualifier ............................................... 38 deprecated Attribute .......................................... 70 deprecated Attribute .......................106, 124 DeSave ................................................................ 154 device support ......................................................... 85 diagnostic files ......................................................... 59 Directories ..........................................................78, 80 DS51686E-page 227 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide Directory Search Options ........................................ 82 -B ...............................................................47, 82 -specs= ........................................................ 82 -dM ......................................................................... 78 -dN ......................................................................... 78 Documentation Conventions ....................................................... 9 Layout ................................................................ 8 double ..................................................... 84, 96, 128 driver input files .......................................................... 46 driver option CCI ................................................................... 43 driver options ................................................ 46, 60-83 E -E ......................................................62, 78, 79, 80, 81 EBase .................................................................. 152 EBase Register .................................................... 152 _ebase_address ......................................152, 155 __eeprom qualifier ................................................... 35 EJTAGver ............................................................. 153 _end ..............................................................155, 188 endianism ................................................................ 96 ENTRY .................................................................. 176 Environment Variables PIC32_C_INCLUDE_PATH ............................. 46 PIC32_C_INCLUDE_PATH ......................... 46 PIC32_COMPILER_PATH ............................ 46 PIC32_EXEC_PREFIX ................................ 47 PIC32_LIBRARY_ PATH ............................ 47 TMPDIR ........................................................... 47 XC32_C_INCLUDE_PATH ............................ 46 XC32_COMPILER_PATH .............................. 46 XC32_EXEC_PREFIX ................................... 47 XC32_LIBRARY_ PATH .............................. 47 EPC ....................................................................... 151 EPC Register .......................................... 141, 151, 154 ERET ..................................................................... 144 Error Control Options -pedantic-errors ................................... 65 -Werror ........................................................ 70 Error Exception Program Counter ......................... 154 ErrorEPC. See Error Exception Program Counter Exception Base Register ....................................... 152 Exception Memory Region exception_mem ........................................ 179 Exception Program Counter .................................. 151 Exception Vector ................................................... 139 exception_mem ............................................... 182 EXL Bit .................................................................. 151 exponent .................................................................. 96 extended character set .......................................... 103 Extensions ............................................................... 79 EXTERN ................................................................ 177 extern ............................................... 70, 76, 84, 131 External Interrupt Controller .................................. 151 F F constant suffix .................................................... 103 -falign-functions ........................................ 73 DS51686E-page 228 -falign-labels ............................................... 73 -falign-loops ................................................. 73 far ....................................................................... 124 __far qualifier ........................................................... 30 -fargument-alias .......................................... 83 -fargument-noalias ..................................... 83 -fargument-noalias-global ..................... 83 fatal error messages ................................................ 60 -fcaller-saves ............................................... 73 -fcall-saved .................................................... 83 -fcall-used ...................................................... 83 -fcse-follow-jumps ..................................... 73 -fcse-skip-blocks ........................................ 74 -fdata-sections ..................................... 74, 106 -fdefer-pop. See -fno-defer -fexpensive-optimizations ..................... 74 -ffixed ........................................................ 83, 206 -fforce-mem ................................................ 73, 76 -ffreestanding ......................................... 63, 64 -ffunction-sections ........................... 74, 126 -fgcse .................................................................. 74 -fgcse-lm ........................................................... 74 -fgcse-sm ........................................................... 74 File Extensions ........................................................ 48 file.c ........................................................... 48 file.h ........................................................... 48 file.i ........................................................... 48 file.ii ......................................................... 48 file.o ........................................................... 48 file.S ........................................................... 48 file.s ........................................................... 48 file types input .................................................................. 46 file.c .................................................................. 48 file.h .................................................................. 48 file.i .................................................................. 48 file.o .................................................................. 48 file.S .................................................................. 48 file.s .................................................................. 48 -finline-functions .................. 70, 73, 76, 130 -finline-limit=n .......................................... 76 -finstrument-functions ............................ 84 -fkeep-inline-functions ................. 76, 131 -fkeep-static-consts ................................. 76 Flags, Positive and Negative ............................. 76, 83 float ........................................................84, 96, 128 float.h ................................................................ 96 floating-point constant suffixes .............................. 103 Floating-Point Format double ........................................................... 96 float ............................................................. 96 long double ............................................... 96 floating-point types .................................................. 97 biased exponent ............................................... 96 exponent ........................................................... 96 rounding ........................................................... 97 -fmove-all-movables ................................... 74 -fno ................................................................. 76, 83 -fno-asm ....................................................... 63, 64 -fno-builtin .............................................. 63, 64 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Index -fno-defer-pop ............................................... 74 -fno-function-cse ....................................... 76 -fno-ident ........................................................ 84 -fno-inline ...................................................... 77 -fno-keep-static-consts ......................... 76 -fno-peephole ................................................. 74 -fno-peephole2 ............................................... 74 -fno-short-double ....................................... 84 -fno-show-column .......................................... 78 -fno-signed-bitfields .............................. 64 -fno-unsigned-bitfields ......................... 64 -fno-verbose-asm .......................................... 84 -fomit-frame-pointer ..................... 72, 73, 77 -foptimize-register-move ....................... 74 -foptimize-sibling-calls ....................... 77 format (type, format_index, first_to_check) ....................................... 124 format_arg (index) ................................... 125 fp ......................................................................... 141 -fpack-struct ................................................. 84 -fpcc-struct-return ................................... 84 Frame Pointer (W14) ..........................................77, 83 -freduce-all-givs ....................................... 74 -fregmove ........................................................... 74 -frename-registers ..................................... 74 -frerun-cse-after-loop ......................74, 75 -frerun-loop-opt .......................................... 74 -fschedule-insns .......................................... 75 -fschedule-insns2 ....................................... 75 -fshort-enums ..........................................84, 197 -fsigned-bitfields ..................................... 64 -fsigned-char ................................................. 64 -fstrength-reduce ....................................... 75 -fstrict-aliasing ..................................73, 75 -fsyntax-only ................................................. 65 -fthread-jumps ..........................................72, 75 function parameters ..............................................112, 128 pointers .......................................................... 101 specifiers ........................................................ 123 functions absolute ........................................................... 29 static ......................................................... 123 written in assembler ....................................... 161 -funroll-all-loops ................................73, 75 -funroll-loops ..........................................73, 75 -funsigned-bitfields .........................64, 197 -funsigned-char .......................................64, 94 -fverbose-asm ................................................. 84 -fvolatile ........................................................ 84 -fvolatile-global ....................................... 84 -fvolatile-static ....................................... 84 -fwritable-strings ..................................... 64 G -g ........................................................................... 72 -G num .................................................................. 61 General Exception ................................................. 141 _general_exception_context() ........... 141 _general_exception_handler ................ 156 _GEN_EXCPT_ADDR ...................................179, 182 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Global Register Variables ...................................... 205 -Gn ....................................................................... 147 _gp ........................................................ 146, 155, 186 gp ...................................................................141, 146 H -H ............................................................................ 78 Hardware Enable Register .................................... 149 header file search path ...................................................... 22 Header Files ......................................46, 48, 78, 79, 80 header files .......................................................21, 159 device ..........................................................85, 88 Heap ...................................................................... 144 _heap ...........................................................144, 155 --help .................................................................. 62 Hex File ................................................................... 50 hexadecimal constants C code ............................................................ 102 hi .......................................................................... 141 High-Priority Interrupts .......................................... 133 HWREna ................................................................ 149 I -I .......................................................................78, 80 -I- ....................................................................78, 80 identifiers unique length of ................................................ 23 -idirafter ........................................................ 78 -imacros ........................................................78, 80 implementation-defined behavior ............................ 92 -include ........................................................79, 80 Include Files ............................................................ 82 incremental builds ................................................... 51 Inhibit Warnings ....................................................... 65 initialized variables ................................................ 147 Inline ............................................................. 70, 73, 76 inline ..................................................... 77, 84, 130 INPUT .................................................................. 177 input files ................................................................. 46 int ..................................................................94, 128 IntCtl ................................................................ 150 integer constants ................................................... 102 integer suffixes ...................................................... 102 Integer Values char ................................................................ 94 int .................................................................. 94 long ................................................................ 94 long long .................................................... 94 short ............................................................. 94 signed char ............................................... 94 signed int ................................................. 94 signed long ............................................... 94 signed long long ................................... 94 signed short ............................................ 94 unsigned char .......................................... 94 unsigned int ............................................ 94 unsigned long .......................................... 94 unsigned long long .............................. 94 unsigned short ........................................ 94 integral promotion .................................................. 117 DS51686E-page 229 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide Internet Address, Microchip ..................................... 12 Interrupt High Priority .................................................... 133 Lower Priority ................................................. 133 interrupt ......................................................... 125 Interrupt Attribute ................................................... 134 interrupt Attribute .......................................... 125 Interrupt Control Register ...................................... 150 interrupt functions context switching ............................................ 142 interrupt handler function ....................................... 134 Interrupt Pragma ................................................... 135 Interrupt Pragma Clause ....................................... 139 __interrupt qualifier .................................................. 35 INT_MAX ................................................................ 95 INT_MIN ................................................................ 95 -iquote .............................................................. 198 __ISR(v, ipl) ............................................... 135 __ISR_AT_VECTOR(v, ipl) ....................... 136 -isystem ............................................................. 82 K k0 .......................................................................... 141 k1 .......................................................................... 141 kseg0_program_mem ............... 183, 185, 186, 187 KSEG1 Data Memory ............................................ 144 kseg1_boot_mem ......................................181, 182 kseg1_data_mem .............................. 186, 187, 188 L -L ............................................................... 81, 82, 177 -l ............................................................................ 81 L constant suffix .................................................... 102 __LANGUAGE_ASSEMBLY ................................. 172 __LANGUAGE_ASSEMBLY__ ............................ 172 _LANGUAGE_ASSEMBLY ................................... 172 LANGUAGE_ASSEMBLY ...................................... 172 __LANGUAGE_C .................................................. 172 __LANGUAGE_C__ ............................................. 172 _LANGUAGE_C .................................................... 172 LANGUAGE_C ...................................................... 172 libraries .................................................................... 55 search order ..................................................... 46 user-defined ..................................................... 57 Library ..................................................................... 81 ANSI Standard ................................................. 14 limits.h ............................................................. 94 CHAR_BIT ...................................................... 94 CHAR_MAX ...................................................... 94 CHAR_MIN ...................................................... 94 INT_MAX ........................................................ 95 INT_MIN ........................................................ 95 LLONG_MAX .................................................... 95 LLONG_MIN .................................................... 95 LONG_MAX ...................................................... 95 LONG_MIN ...................................................... 95 MB_LEN_MAX ................................................. 94 SCHAR_MAX .................................................... 94 SCHAR_MIN .................................................... 94 SHRT_MAX ...................................................... 94 SHRT_MIN ...................................................... 94 DS51686E-page 230 UCHAR_MAX .................................................... 94 UINT_MAX ...................................................... 95 ULLONG_MAX ................................................. 95 ULONG_MAX .................................................... 95 USHRT_MAX .................................................... 94 link ..................................................................... 200 Linker ....................................................................... 81 linker scripts ........................................................... 175 Linking Options ........................................................ 81 -L ............................................................... 81, 82 -l ..................................................................... 81 -nodefaultlibs ........................................ 81 -nostdlib .................................................... 81 -s ..................................................................... 82 -u ..................................................................... 82 -Wl .................................................................. 82 -Xlinker ...................................................... 82 little endian format ................................................... 96 little-endian .............................................................. 93 LLONG_MAX ........................................................... 95 LLONG_MIN ........................................................... 95 lo .......................................................................... 141 Local Register Variables ................................ 205, 206 long ............................................................... 94, 128 Long double .................................................... 128 long double ................................................ 84, 96 long long ..............................................70, 94, 128 longcall ........................................................... 125 longcall Attribute ............................................. 127 LONG_MAX ............................................................. 95 LONG_MIN ............................................................. 95 __longramfunc__ ........................................... 127 Loop Optimizer ........................................................ 74 Loop Unrolling ......................................................... 75 Lower-Priority Interrupts ........................................ 133 M -M ............................................................................ 79 macro ..........................................................78, 80, 131 Macros __C32_VERSION_ ...................................... 173 __LANGUAGE_ASSEMBLY .......................... 172 __LANGUAGE_ASSEMBLY__ ..................... 172 _LANGUAGE_ASSEMBLY ............................ 172 LANGUAGE_ASSEMBLY ............................... 172 __LANGUAGE_C ........................................... 172 __LANGUAGE_C__ ...................................... 172 _LANGUAGE_C ............................................. 172 LANGUAGE_C ............................................... 172 _mchp_no_float ...................................... 172 _MCHP_SZINT ............................................. 172 _MCHP_SZLONG ........................................... 172 _MCHP_SZPTR ............................................. 172 __NO_FLOAT ............................................... 172 __PIC__ ....................................................... 172 __pic__ ....................................................... 172 __PIC32_FEATURE_SET__ ..................... 172 __PIC32MX .................................................. 172 __PIC32MX__ ............................................. 172 PIC32MX ....................................................... 172 __processor__ ........................................ 173 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Index __VERSION__ ............................................. 173 main ..................................................................... 143 main function ....................................................21, 143 main-line code ....................................................... 133 malloc .........................................................114, 125 mantissa .................................................................. 96 map files .................................................................. 59 -mappio-debug ................................................. 62 MB_LEN_MAX ........................................................ 94 -mcheck-zero-division .............................. 61 _MCHP_ ................................................................ 172 _mchp_no_float ............................................. 172 _MCHP_SZINT .................................................... 172 _MCHP_SZLONG ................................................. 172 _MCHP_SZPTR .................................................... 172 -MD ......................................................................... 79 -mdebugger ...............................................182, 186 -membedded-data ............................................ 61 memory allocation ................................................. 109 data memory .................................................. 110 function code .................................................. 127 non-auto variables ....................................... 110 program memory ............................................ 113 static variables ............................................... 110 memory models ..................................................... 114 messages error, see error messages fatal error .......................................................... 60 types of ............................................................ 60 -MF ......................................................................... 79 -MG ......................................................................... 79 _min_heap_size ......................................144, 177 _min_stack_size ...................................144, 177 _MIPS_ ................................................................ 174 __mips ................................................................ 174 __mips__ ........................................................... 174 _mips .................................................................. 174 __mips16 ........................................................... 174 -mips16 .................................................. 56, 61, 125 mips16 ................................................................ 125 -mips16 -mno-float ..................................... 56 _MIPS_ARCH_PIC32MX ................................... 174 __MIPSEL ........................................................... 174 __MIPSEL__ ...................................................... 174 _MIPSEL ............................................................. 174 MIPSEL ................................................................ 174 _mips_fpr ......................................................... 174 _MIPS_ISA ......................................................... 174 __mips_isa_rev ............................................. 174 _mips_no_float ............................................. 174 __mips_soft_float ..................................... 174 _MIPS_SZINT .................................................... 174 _MIPS_SZLONG ................................................. 174 _MIPS_SZPTR .................................................... 174 _MIPS_TUNE_PIC32MX ................................... 174 -mlong-calls ............................................61, 125 -MM ......................................................................... 79 -MMD ....................................................................... 79 -mmemcpy ............................................................. 61 -mno-check-zero-division ....................... 61 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. -mno-embedded-data ..................................... 61 -mno-float ...................................................56, 61 -mno-long-calls ............................................ 61 -mno-memcpy ...................................................... 61 -mno-mips16 .................................................56, 61 -mno-peripheral-libs ................................ 61 -mno-uninit-const-in-rodata ................ 61 -MP ......................................................................... 79 -mprocessor ...............................................61, 177 -MQ ......................................................................... 79 -msoft-float .................................................... 56 -MT ......................................................................... 79 MTC0 Instruction ................................................... 151 -muninit-const-in-rodata ....................... 61 myMicrochip Personalized Notification Service ....... 11 N naked .................................................................. 125 near ..................................................................... 125 __near qualifier ........................................................ 31 _nmi_handler .................................................. 144 -nodefaultlibs ............................................... 81 __NO_FLOAT ...................................................... 172 noinline ........................................................... 125 no_instrument_function Attribute .... 84 NOLOAD .........................................................182, 186 nomips16 ............................................ 125, 144, 156 nonnull (index, ...) .............................. 125 non-volatile RAM ................................................... 104 NOP ....................................................................... 183 noreturn ........................................................... 126 noreturn Attribute ............................................... 70 -nostdinc ......................................................78, 80 -nostdlib ........................................................... 81 NULL macro ............................................................ 28 NULL pointers ....................................................... 101 O -O ............................................................................ 72 -o .......................................................................50, 62 -o ex1.out ........................................................ 50 -O0 ....................................................................56, 72 -O1 ......................................................................... 72 -O2 ....................................................................73, 76 -O3 ....................................................................56, 73 -O3 -mips16 ...................................................... 56 -O3 -mips16 -mno-float ............................ 56 -O3 -mno-float ............................................... 56 Object File .................................................... 74, 79, 81 Omitted Operands ................................................. 120 _on_reset ......................................................... 157 Optimization Control Options .................................. 72 -falign-functions ................................ 73 -falign-labels ........................................ 73 -falign-loops .......................................... 73 -fcaller-saves ........................................ 73 -fcse-follow-jumps .............................. 73 -fcse-skip-blocks ................................ 74 -fdata-sections ..................................... 74 -fexpensive-optimizations ............. 74 -fforce-mem ............................................... 76 DS51686E-page 231 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide -ffunction-sections ............................ 74 -fgcse ........................................................... 74 -fgcse-lm .................................................... 74 -fgcse-sm .................................................... 74 -finline-functions .............................. 76 -finline-limit=n ................................... 76 -fkeep-inline-functions .................. 76 -fkeep-static-consts ......................... 76 -fmove-all-movables ............................ 74 -fno-defer-pop ........................................ 74 -fno-function-cse ................................ 76 -fno-inline ............................................... 77 -fno-peephole .......................................... 74 -fno-peephole2 ........................................ 74 -fomit-frame-pointer ......................... 77 -foptimize-register-move ................ 74 -foptimize-sibling-calls ................ 77 -freduce-all-givs ................................ 74 -fregmove .................................................... 74 -frename-registers .............................. 74 -frerun-cse-after-loop .................... 74 -frerun-loop-opt ................................... 74 -fschedule-insns ................................... 75 -fschedule-insns2 ................................ 75 -fstrength-reduce ................................ 75 -fstrict-aliasing ................................ 75 -fthread-jumps ........................................ 75 -funroll-all-loops .............................. 75 -funroll-loops ........................................ 75 -O .................................................................... 72 -O0 .................................................................. 72 -O1 .................................................................. 72 -O2 .................................................................. 73 -O3 .................................................................. 73 -Os .................................................................. 73 Optimization, Loop .................................................. 74 Optimization, Peephole ........................................... 74 Options Assembling ....................................................... 81 C Dialect Control .........................................63, 64 Code Generation Conventions ......................... 83 Debugging ........................................................ 72 Directory Search .............................................. 82 Linking .............................................................. 81 Optimization Control ......................................... 72 Output Control .................................................. 62 Preprocessor Control ....................................... 78 Warnings and Errors Control ............................ 65 -Os ....................................................................56, 73 -Os -mips16 ...................................................... 56 -Os -mips16 -mno-float ............................ 56 -Os -mno-float ............................................... 56 Output Control Options ............................................ 62 -c .................................................................... 62 -E .................................................................... 62 --help ........................................................... 62 -o .................................................................... 62 -S .................................................................... 62 -v .................................................................... 62 -x .................................................................... 62 DS51686E-page 232 output files names of ........................................................... 58 OUTPUT_ARCH .................................................... 176 OUTPUT_FORMAT ............................................... 176 P -P ............................................................................ 80 __pack qualifier ....................................................... 37 packed ................................................................ 106 parameters, see function, parameters -pedantic ..................................................... 65, 70 -pedantic-errors .......................................... 65 Peephole Optimization ............................................ 74 __persisten qualifier ................................................ 32 persistent qualifier .......................................... 147 persistent qualifier ......................................... 157 __PIC__ .............................................................. 172 __pic__ .............................................................. 172 PIC32_C_INCLUDE_PATH ..................................... 46 PIC32_C_INCLUDE_PATH ................................. 46 PIC32_COMPILER_PATH ................................... 46 PIC32_EXEC_PREFIX ........................................ 47 __PIC32_FEATURE_SET__ ............................ 172 PIC32_LIBRARY_ PATH ................................... 47 __PIC32MX ......................................................... 172 __PIC32MX__ .................................................... 172 PIC32MX .............................................................. 172 PIC32MX Device-Specific Options -G num ........................................................... 61 -mappio-debug .......................................... 62 -mcheck-zero-division ....................... 61 -membedded-data ..................................... 61 -mips16 ......................................................... 61 -mlong-calls ............................................. 61 -mmemcpy ...................................................... 61 -mno-check-zero-division ................ 61 -mno-embedded-data .............................. 61 -mno-float ................................................. 61 -mno-long-calls ..................................... 61 -mno-memcpy ............................................... 61 -mno-mips16 ............................................... 61 -mno-peripheral-libs ......................... 61 -mno-uninit-const-in-rodata ......... 61 -mprocessor ............................................... 61 -muninit-const-in-rodata ................ 61 PIC32MX Start-up Code ........................................ 144 pointer comparisons ................................................... 101 definitions ....................................................... 100 qualifiers ......................................................... 100 types ............................................................... 100 Pointers ................................................................... 70 Frame ......................................................... 77, 83 Stack ................................................................ 83 pointers .......................................................... 100-101 assigning dummy targets ............................... 101 assigning integers .......................................... 101 function ........................................................... 101 powerup routine ..................................................... 157 pragma directives .................................................. 171 Pragmas 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Index #pragma config .......................... 86, 87, 171 #pragma interrupt .............................. 171 #pragma vector ..................................... 171 Predefined Macros ................................................ 172 prefix ....................................................................... 82 preprocessing ........................................................ 169 preprocessor type conversions ............................................ 170 Preprocessor Control Options ................................. 78 -C .................................................................... 78 -D .................................................................... 78 -dD .................................................................. 78 -dM .................................................................. 78 -dN .................................................................. 78 -fno-show-column ................................... 78 -H .................................................................... 78 -I .................................................................... 78 -I- .................................................................. 78 -idirafter ................................................. 78 -imacros ...................................................... 78 -include ...................................................... 79 -M .................................................................... 79 -MD .................................................................. 79 -MF .................................................................. 79 -MG .................................................................. 79 -MM .................................................................. 79 -MMD ............................................................... 79 -MQ .................................................................. 79 -MT .................................................................. 79 -nostdinc ................................................... 80 -P .................................................................... 80 -trigraphs ................................................. 80 -U .................................................................... 80 -undef ........................................................... 80 preprocessor directives ..................................169-170 preprocessor macros predefined ........................................................ 41 PRId ..................................................................... 152 __processor__ ............................................... 173 Processor Identification Register ........................... 152 processor.o .................................................... 177 program memory ................................................... 113 Program Memory Region kseg0_program_mem .............................. 179 project name ........................................................... 59 PROVIDE ............................................................. 177 Provisions ................................................................ 58 pure ..................................................................... 126 Q -Q ........................................................................... 72 qualifier __align ............................................................. 34 auto ............................................................. 112 __bank ............................................................. 33 const .............................................................. 104 __deprecate ..................................................... 38 __eeprom ......................................................... 35 __far ................................................................. 30 __interrupt ........................................................ 35 __near .............................................................. 31 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. __pack .............................................................. 37 __persistent ...................................................... 32 persistent ........................................147, 157 __section .......................................................... 39 volatile ............................................................ 104 __xdata ............................................................ 33 __ydata ............................................................ 33 qualifiers .........................................................104-105 and auto variables ....................................... 112 and structures .................................................. 98 R __R3000 .............................................................. 174 __R3000__ ......................................................... 174 _R3000 ................................................................ 174 R3000 .................................................................. 174 ra .......................................................................... 141 radix specifiers C code ............................................................ 102 __ramfunc__ .................................................... 127 ramfunc .............................................................. 126 _ramfunc_begin ............................................. 155 _ramfunc_length ...................................148, 155 RAW Dependency ................................................... 75 RDHWR .................................................................. 149 Reading, Recommended ......................................... 10 read-only variables ................................................ 104 realloc .............................................................. 114 Reduce Code Size .............................................72, 73 register ....................................................205, 206 Register Conventions ............................................ 121 registers allocation to .................................................... 114 Requested Interrupt Priority Level ......................... 151 _reset ................................................................ 176 reset code executed after ........................................ 157 _RESET_ADDR .............................................179, 181 Return Type ............................................................. 66 runtime startup code variable initialization ....................................... 147 rx .......................................................................... 180 S -S .......................................................................62, 81 -s ............................................................................ 82 s0-s7 .................................................................. 141 -save-temps ...................................................... 72 sbrk ..................................................................... 144 _sbss_begin .................................................... 188 _sbss_end ......................................................... 188 SCHAR_MAX ........................................................... 94 SCHAR_MIN ........................................................... 94 Scheduling ............................................................... 75 _sdata_begin .................................................. 187 _sdata_end ...................................................... 187 SDE Compatibility Macros ..................................... 174 __mips ......................................................... 174 __mips__ .................................................... 174 _mips ........................................................... 174 __mips16 .................................................... 174 DS51686E-page 233 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide _MIPS_ARCH_PIC32MX ............................ 174 __MIPSEL .................................................... 174 __MIPSEL__ ............................................... 174 _MIPSEL ...................................................... 174 MIPSEL ......................................................... 174 _mips_fpr .................................................. 174 _MIPS_ISA .................................................. 174 __mips_isa_rev ...................................... 174 _mips_no_float ...................................... 174 __mips_soft_float .............................. 174 _MIPS_SZINT ............................................. 174 _MIPS_SZLONG .......................................... 174 _MIPS_SZPTR ............................................. 174 _MIPS_TUNE_PIC32MX ............................ 174 __R3000 ...................................................... 174 __R3000__ .................................................. 174 _R3000 ......................................................... 174 R3000 ........................................................... 174 Section Configuration Words ........................................ 86 section ..................................................................... 74 section ("name") ........................................ 106 section (name) ............................................. 126 __section qualifier ................................................... 39 SECTIONS Command ...................................180, 181 SFR Memory Region sfrs .............................................................. 180 SFRs ....................................................................... 88 Shadow Register Control Register ........................ 151 Shadow Register Map Register ............................. 151 short .............................................................94, 128 SHRT_MAX ............................................................. 94 SHRT_MIN ............................................................. 94 sign bit ..................................................................... 96 signed char ...................................................... 94 signed int ........................................................ 94 signed long ...................................................... 94 signed long long .......................................... 94 signed short .................................................... 94 Simulator, Command-Line ....................................... 14 SI_TimerInt .................................................... 150 size of types ............................................................ 97 sp ...................................................................141, 144 space Attribute .................................................... 107 Special Function Registers ...................................... 50 special function registers, see SFRs Specifying Registers for Local Variables ............... 206 -specs= ................................................................ 82 SR .......................................................................... 141 SRSCtl ................................................................ 151 SRSMap ................................................................ 151 Stack C Usage ......................................................... 112 Pointer (W15) ..............................................83, 86 _stack ................................................. 144, 155, 189 Stack Location ....................................................... 189 Stack Pointer ......................................................... 144 Standard I/O Functions ........................................... 14 standard library files Start-up and Initialization ......................................... 58 DS51686E-page 234 For C ................................................................ 58 For C++ ............................................................ 58 static ........................................................................ 84 static functions ................................................. 123 static variables ....................................................... 110 static variables ................................................. 147 Status ................................................................ 150 Status Register ...................................................... 150 StatusBEV .................................................. 152, 156 storage duration ..................................................... 110 string literals .......................................................... 103 concatenation ................................................. 104 storage location .............................................. 103 type of ............................................................. 103 Strings ..................................................................... 64 struct types, see structures Structure ......................................................... 128 structure bit-fields .................................................... 98 structure qualifiers ................................................... 98 structures ................................................................. 98 bit-fields in ........................................................ 98 switch ....................................................................... 67 symbol ..................................................................... 82 Syntax Check .......................................................... 65 System Function link .............................................................. 200 unlink ......................................................... 200 System Header Files ......................................... 67, 79 T t0-t9 ................................................................... 141 temporary variables ............................................... 112 TMPDIR .................................................................. 47 Trace Control Register .......................................... 153 TraceBPC ........................................................... 153 TraceBPC Register ................................................ 153 TraceControl .................................................. 153 TraceControl2 ............................................... 153 -traditional ............................................ 64, 130 Traditional C ............................................................ 71 Trigraphs ........................................................... 67, 80 -trigraphs ......................................................... 80 Type Conversion ..................................................... 70 type conversions .................................................... 117 U -U ...................................................................... 78, 80 -u ............................................................................ 82 U constant suffix .................................................... 102 UCHAR_MAX ........................................................... 94 UINT_MAX ............................................................. 95 ULLONG_MAX ......................................................... 95 ULONG_MAX ........................................................... 95 -undef .................................................................. 80 uninitilized variables .............................................. 147 unions anonymous ....................................................... 99 qualifiers ........................................................... 98 unique_section ..................................... 107, 126 unlink ................................................................ 200 unnamed bit-fields ................................................... 99 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Index unnamed structure members .................................. 99 Unroll Loop .............................................................. 75 unsigned char ................................................. 94 unsigned int ................................................... 94 unsigned long ................................................. 94 unsigned long long ..................................... 94 unsigned short ............................................... 94 unused Attribute .................................... 68, 107, 126 Unused Function Parameter ................................... 68 Unused Variable ...................................................... 68 unused variables removing ........................................................ 104 USB ....................................................................... 224 used Attribute ...................................................... 127 User Trace Data Register ...................................... 153 UserTraceData ............................................... 153 USHRT_MAX ........................................................... 94 V -v ........................................................................... 62 v0 ......................................................................... 141 v1 ......................................................................... 141 variables absolute ........................................................... 29 auto ............................................................. 112 in program memory .................................113-114 in registers ..................................................... 114 initialization .................................................... 147 sizes ................................................................. 97 static ......................................................... 110 storage duration ............................................. 110 Variables in Specified Registers ............................ 205 vector ................................................................ 127 Vector Pragma ...................................................... 140 _vector_spacing ........................... 150, 155, 178 __VERSION__ .................................................... 173 volatile ..................................................................... 84 volatile qualifier ..................................................... 104 W -W ...........................................................65, 68, 69, 71 -w ........................................................................... 65 w!x ....................................................................... 180 -Wa ......................................................................... 81 -Waggregate-return ..................................... 69 -Wall ....................................................65, 68, 69, 71 warning messages .................................................. 60 Warnings and Errors Control Options ..................... 65 -fsyntax-only .......................................... 65 -pedantic ................................................... 65 -pedantic-errors ................................... 65 -W .................................................................... 69 -w .................................................................... 65 -Waggregate-return .............................. 69 -Wall ............................................................. 65 -Wbad-function-cast ........................... 69 -Wcast-align ............................................ 69 -Wcast-qual ............................................... 69 -Wchar-subscripts ................................ 65 -Wcomment ................................................... 65 -Wconversion ............................................ 70 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. -Wdiv-by-zero .......................................... 65 -Werror ............................................................. 70 -Wformat ...................................................... 65 -Wimplicit ................................................. 66 -Wimplicit-function-declaration 66 -Wimplicit-int ........................................ 66 -Winline ...................................................... 70 -Wlarger-than- ........................................ 70 -Wlong-long ............................................... 70 -Wmain ........................................................... 66 -Wmissing-braces ................................... 66 -Wmissing-declarations .................... 70 -Wmissing-format-attribute ........... 70 -Wmissing-noreturn .............................. 70 -Wmissing-prototypes ......................... 70 -Wmultichar ............................................... 66 -Wnested-externs ................................... 70 -Wno-long-long ........................................ 70 -Wno-sign-compare ................................ 71 -Wpadded ...................................................... 70 -Wparentheses .......................................... 66 -Wpointer-arith ..................................... 70 -Wredundant-decls ................................ 70 -Wreturn-type .......................................... 66 -Wsequence-point ................................... 67 -Wshadow ...................................................... 70 -Wsign-compare ........................................ 71 -Wstrict-prototypes ............................ 71 -Wswitch ...................................................... 67 -Wsystem-headers ................................... 67 -Wtraditional .......................................... 71 -Wtrigraphs ............................................... 67 -Wundef ........................................................ 71 -Wuninitialized ..................................... 68 -Wunknown-pragmas ................................ 68 -Wunreachable-code .............................. 71 -Wunused ...................................................... 68 -Wunused-function ................................ 68 -Wunused-label ........................................ 68 -Wunused-parameter .............................. 68 -Wunused-value ........................................ 68 -Wunused-variable ................................ 68 -Wwrite-strings ..................................... 71 -Wno-multichar ................................................. 66 Warnings, Inhibit ...................................................... 65 warn_unused_result ................................... 127 Watchdog Timer .................................................... 224 -Wbad-function-cast ................................... 69 -Wcast-align .................................................... 69 -Wcast-qual ...................................................... 69 -Wchar-subscripts ........................................ 65 -Wcomment ........................................................... 65 -Wconversion .................................................... 70 -Wdiv-by-zero ................................................. 65 weak ..............................................................107, 127 Web Site, Microchip ................................................ 12 -Werror ................................................................ 70 -Wformat ........................................................65, 70 -Wimplicit ........................................................ 66 -Wimplicit-function-declaration ...... 66 DS51686E-page 235 MPLAB(R) XC32 C/C++ Compiler User's Guide -Wimplicit-int ............................................... 66 -Winline ......................................................70, 131 -Wl ......................................................................... 82 -Wlarger-than- ............................................... 70 -Wlong-long ...................................................... 70 -Wmain .................................................................. 66 -Wmissing-braces .......................................... 66 -Wmissing-declarations ............................ 70 -Wmissing-format-attribute .................. 70 -Wmissing-noreturn ..................................... 70 -Wmissing-prototypes ................................ 70 -Wmultichar ...................................................... 66 -Wnested-externs .......................................... 70 -Wno- .................................................................... 65 -Wno-deprecated-declarations ............. 70 -Wno-div-by-zero .......................................... 65 -Wno-long-long ............................................... 70 -Wno-multichar ............................................... 66 -Wnonnull ......................................................... 125 -Wno-sign-compare ...................................69, 71 -Wpadded ............................................................. 70 -Wparentheses ................................................. 66 -Wpointer-arith ............................................ 70 -Wredundant-decls ........................................ 70 -Wreturn-type ................................................. 66 -Wsequence-point .......................................... 67 -Wshadow ............................................................. 70 -Wsign-compare ............................................... 71 -Wstrict-prototypes ................................... 71 -Wswitch ............................................................. 67 -Wsystem-headers .......................................... 67 -Wtraditional ................................................. 71 -Wtrigraphs ...................................................... 67 -Wundef ................................................................ 71 -Wuninitialized ............................................ 68 -Wunknown-pragmas ...................................67, 68 -Wunreachable-code ..................................... 71 -Wunused ........................................................68, 69 -Wunused-function ........................................ 68 -Wunused-label ............................................... 68 -Wunused-parameter ..................................... 68 -Wunused-value ............................................... 68 -Wunused-variable ........................................ 68 -Wwrite-strings ............................................ 71 X -x ............................................................................ 62 xc.h header file ..................................................... 85 XC32_C_INCLUDE_PATH ................................... 46 XC32_COMPILER_PATH ..................................... 46 XC32_EXEC_PREFIX .......................................... 47 xc32-gcc ............................................................. 45 XC32_LIBRARY_ PATH ..................................... 47 __xdata qualifier ...................................................... 33 -Xlinker ............................................................. 82 Y __ydata qualifier ...................................................... 33 DS51686E-page 236 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. Index NOTES: 2012 Microchip Technology Inc. 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