AN4105 - Fairchild Semiconductor

Application Note AN4105

Design Considerations for Switched Mode Power

Supplies Using A F airchild Power Switc h (FPS) in a

Flyback Converter

www.fairchildsemi.com

Introduction

Flyback switched mode power supplies (SMPS) are among

the most frequently used power circuits in household and

consumer electronics. The basic function of an SMPS is to

supply regulated power to the load on the secondary, or

output side. An SMPS typically incorporates a power

transformer, secondary-side rectifier diodes, a switching

semiconductor device with control IC, and peripheral

circuitry. If the level of integration of the switching and

control circuitry is not h igh enough, then addit i onal, s e par a te

circuits will be required to accomm odate all functions. Such

additional components raise the overall SMPS cost and not

uncommonly r educe reli ability.

Fairchild Power Switches are highly-integrated ICs for

power supply applications. They combine a high-voltage

power MOSFET (SenseFET) and pulse width modulation

(PWM) based control IC in one package. Moreover, they

provide enhanced IC functionality, thereby minimizing the

number of additional components needed in an SMPS.

Fairchild Power Switch (SPS) ICs are widely used in the

power circuits of a variety of equipment, such as color TVs,

printers, PCs, monitors, battery chargers and ac adapters.

They typically incorporate a variety of enhanced protection

functions and they permit a much reduced power

consumption in standby modes.

This application note considers the three major functional

blocks of an SMPS: Fairchild Power Swi tch (SPS) , flyback

converter, and transformer. It discusses a variety of issues

important to their design and use in the overall SMPS.

Figure1. Intern al block diagr am of a Fairchild Power Switch(FPS).

Source

GND

Drain

Sense

Feedback

Soft Start

& Sync.

LEB

Rsense

2.5R

OSC.

Reset

1mA2uA Vck

6.3V Sync.

7.5V

Reset

Voffset

#3 Vcc

Voltage

Ref.

UVLO

32V

OVP

Control IC

Sense

FET

Thermal

Protection

Rev. 1.0.2

AN4105 APPLICATION NOTE

1. Block Diagram and Basic Operation

of a Fairchild Power Switch(FPS)

1.1 Block Diagram

Figure 1 presents a block diagram of a Fairchild Power

Switch (FPS). It can be divided into several large, functional

sections: under voltage lockout circuitry (UVLO); reference

voltage; oscillator (OSC); pulse width modulation (PWM)

block; protection circuits; and gate driving circuits.

1.2 Under Vol tage Lockout (UVLO)

A Fairchild Power Switch (FPS) under voltage lockout

(UVLO) circuitry (Figure 2) guarantees stable operation of

the IC’s control circuit by stopping and starting it as a

function of the value of V

(Figure 3). The tur off and turn

on voltage thresholds are fixed internally at 10V and 15V,

respectively. Therefore the UVLO circuitry turns off the

control circuit when V

is lower than 10V and starts it

when V

is higher than 15V. Once the control circuit starts

operating, V

must drop below the 10V level for the

UVLO to stop the cir cuit again. Before switching starts, the

IC current is less than 300µA. IC operation starts when C

(Figure 2) charges to 15V. Because only a small current (<1

mA) is allowed to flow in through the resistor during normal

operation this technique reduces the current dissipation in

the SMPS start up resistor.

Figure 2. Detail of the undervoltage lockout (UVLO)

circuitry in a Fairchild Power Switch. The gate

oper ating circuit holds in a low state d uring UVLO,

thereby maintaining the SenseFET at turnoff.

Figure 3. Fairchild Power Switch(FPS) control circuit status vs. V

cc.

1.3 Feedback Control Circuit

The Fairchild Power Switch(FPS) control IC uses a current

mode PWM and operates such that MOSFET current is

proportional to the feedback voltage V

. This limits the

MOSFET current at every cycle. It also offers other

advantages, such as a well regulated SMPS output voltage

with input voltage changes. This method of control also

works successfully in SMPSs used for monitors, which may

have a broad range of synchronizing frequencies to deal

with. As shown in Figure 4, the Fairchild Power Switch

(FPS) oscillator turns on the MOSFET. The feedback

comparator operates to turn it off again, when the MOSFET

current reaches a set value proportional to V

. The

MOSFET turn off operation is as follows:(1) the internal

(R+2.5R) voltage divider sets the voltage fed back to one

input of the feedback comparator at V

/3.5; (2) a current

propo rti onal to the dr ai n current flow s t o th e MO SF ET s ens e

terminal making V

sense

proportional to the drain current;

and, (3) when V

sense

becomes greater than V

, the output of

the feedback comparator goes high, turning off the

MOSFET. Figure 4 also shows that the circuit is designed to

use an opto isolator in the feedback loop. This is appropriate

for an off line design where input to output

Vcc

15V/10V

UVL

Vz Vref

Internal Bias

Good Logic

Power On

Reset

Latch

Comparator

LINK Rg

Ccc

SPS

Fairchild Power

Switch(FPS)

15V10V

Icc

[mA]

[V]

0.3

Power On

Reset Range

[V]

APPLICATION NOTE AN4105

isolation is required. C

improves the noise characteristics.

If the control IC incorporates an error amp however, as in

Fairchild’s KA3842B/3B/4B/5B current mode PWM

controller ICs for SMPSs then a resistor and capacitor are

required to provide the feedback to the error amp. This

would provided the same functions as those provided by the

circuit of Figure 4, e.g., fine control of the output voltage

through Vfb. Similarly, other appropriate devices here are

Fairchild’s LM431/TL431/KA431 series of three terminal

shunt regulators. These have a very sharp turn on

characteristic much like a Zener diode and are widely used in

SMPS secondary side error amplifiers.

Figure 4. Fairchild Power Switch(FPS) feedback circuit appropriate for off line SMPS use (current mode PWM).

1.4 Example Fairchild Power Switch (FPS)

Control Circuit

Figure 5 shows two approaches to control feedback with a

Fairchild Power Switch (FPS). The design in Figure 5a uses

the LM431 regulator, and that of Figure 5 b uses a Zener diode.

Even though zenor d iode approach is cost effectiv e, t he output

regulation is relatively poor.

In Figure 5a, C1 together with R1 produce high frequency

pole formed by the internal 3.5kΩ resistor and C

in the

compensation net worrk. R4 l imits the maximum current of the

photodiode to 2.3mA [(12V - 2.5V - 2V) /3.3KΩ, where 2.5V

is the LM431's saturation voltage and 2 V is the photodiode's

voltage drop]. C

should be determined by considering the

shutdown delay time (see Section 2.1). In Figure 5b, R3 sets a

fixed current to the Zener diode to stabilize its voltage.

Rsense

2.5R

OSC.

Ioffset Sense

1mA2uA Vck

Precision

Current Source

Vfb

Vfb*

Reset

Vss

Vsense Isense

Idrain

Off

Cfb

Css

SPS

Fairchild Power Switch(FPS)

AN4105 APPLICATION NOTE

Figure 5. Fairchild Power Switch(FPS) feedback control circuit.

1.5 Soft Start Operation

Normally, the SMPS output voltage increases from start up

with a fixed time constant. This is due to the capacitive

component of the load. At start up, therefore, the feedback

signal applied to the PWM comparator's inverting input

reaches its maximum value (1V), This is because the

feedback loop is ef fectively op en. Also at this time, the drain

current is at its peak value (I

peak

) and maximum allowable

power is being delivered to the secondary load. With that

said, note that when the SMPS pushes maximum power to

the secondary side for this initial fixed time, the entire circuit

is seriously stressed. Use of a soft start function avoids such

stresses. Figure 6 shows how to implement a soft start for a

Fairchild Power Switch(FPS). At turn on, the soft start

capacitor C

on pin 5 of the Fairchild Power Switch(FPS)

starts to charge through the 1mA current source. When the

voltage across C

reaches 3V, diode D

turns off. No more

current flows to it from the 1mA current source. Cs then

continues to charge to 5V through the 50kΩ resistor.

Rsense

OSC.

Ioffset

1mA2uA Vck

Vfb

Vfb*

Sense

Cfb

Vo, 80V 12V

33n 2k

2.2k

33k

0.1u

PC817

(b) Control circuit that used the zener diode

R2 Vz

R1 R3

Rsense

OSC.

Ioffset

1mA2uA Vck

Vfb

Vfb*

Sense

Cfb

Vo, 80V 12V

33n 2k

33n

KA431

3.3k

33k

10n

PC817

(a) Control circuit that used KA431(LM431)

SPS

LM431

Fairchild Power Switch(FPS)

Control Circuit using KA431(LM431) Control IC

Control Circuit using a Zener Diode Control IC

APPLICATION NOTE AN4105

Figure 6. Soft start circuit.

Note that when the voltage across C

exceeds 3V, The voltage

at the comparator’s inverting terminal no longer follows the

voltage across C

. Instead, it follows the output voltage

feedback signal. In shutdown or protection circuit operation,

capacitor C

is dischar g ed, in order t o enable it t o charge from

0V at restart.

1.6 Synchronizat ion

In an SMPS intended for use with monitors, synchronization

is handled differently than in a general purpose SMPS. For

monitor use, it is necessary to prevent noise from appearing on

the monitor display. To accomplish this, it is necessary to

synchronize the SMPS switching frequency with the

monitor’s horizontal sy nc frequency. Th e moni tor’s horiz ontal

scan flyback signal is commonly used as the external sync

signal for the SMPS. By synchronizing the switching with the

horizontal scan’s flyback, the switching noise is positioned at

the far left of the monitor display where it cannot be seen.

Figure 7 shows how to implement the external circuit for

synchronization. The external sync signal, applied across

resistor R

, cannot drop below 0.6V because of diode D

sync

After th e conc lusio n o f t he init ial sof t st art, t he voltag e across

remains at 5V until the external sync signal is applied, at

which point it looks like V

of Figure 8. The sync comparator

compares V

against a 6.3V level and produces the

comparator output waveform, V

comp

of Figure 8.

A Fairchild Power Switch (FPS) has an internal timing

capacitor , C

. Figure 8 shows that wh en the voltage on C

, V

reaches an upper threshold, it begins to discharge; then, when

it reaches a lower threshold, it again starts to charge. This

operation is control le d by the in ternal os cillator. The oscillator

output signal, V

in Figure 8, which goes low.

Figure 7. Synchronization circuit.

when C

recharges and high when it discharges, is applied to

the Fairchild Power Switch (FPS) S/R Latch Set terminal. In

the absence of an external sync signal, the voltage across C

oscillates at the basic frequency of 20kHz. In the presence of

a sync signal, however, the Set signal goes high because V

charges to the high threshold following the external sync

signal, and, ultimately, the Set signal, which determines the

switching frequency, synchronizes to the external sync

signal. It is necessary to limit the Set signal's h igh duration to

5% or less of the full cy cle. As the Set signal drops low the

gate turns on. If the device were not synchronized to the

horizontal scan of the monitor, noise would appear on the

screen. When the Set signal goes high, the sync is synchro-

nized with the horizontal scan flyback. Because the high

duration is 5% (maximum) of the full cycle, the start of the

horizontal scan (as the Set signal goes low) turns on the

switch. The switch turn on noise, therefore, is hidden in the

horizontal blanking period at the far left of the monitor

display.

Figure 8. Synchronization circuit operation.

－

＋

2㎂1㎃

10V

External

Sync Input

50k

5V PWM

Comparator

Fairchild Power

Switch (SPS)

KA5XX Series

KA5SXX

KA5QXX

Series

#5#4

Fairch ild Power S wi t c h( F PS )

KA2SXX

KA3SXX

OSC.

OSC.OSC.

OSC.

1㎃

External

Sync

Input VRS

5V PWM

comparator

VCOMP

6.3V

Sync

comparator

VCS

Dsync

SPS

－

＋

－

＋

Fairchild Power Switch(FPS)

COMP

Vck

ThL

ThH

AN4105 APPLICATION NOTE

2. Fairchild Power Switch(FPS) Built

In Protection Circuit s

Since a Fairchild Power Switch (FPS)’s built in protection

circuits do not require additional, external components,

reliability is increased withou t increasing cost. Note that the

protective circuitry can completely stop the SMP S operati on

(latch mode protection) until the power is turned off and on

again, and can make the control voltage restart above the

ULVO level should the latch be released below ULVO

(Auto Restart Mode protection).

2.1 Output Overload Prot ection

An overload is any load greater than the load defined as

normal for operation. This is not a short circuit. The

Fairchild Power Switch (FPS) overload protection

determines whether the overload is true or merely transient.

Only a true overload will trigger the overload protection.

When the Fairchild Power Switch (FPS) senses an overload,

it waits for a specified time. If the overload is still present

after this, it is considered a true overload and the device

shuts down.

The Fairchild Power Switch (FPS) has a current control that

prohibits current flow above a set maximum, which means

the maximum input power is limited at any given voltage.

Therefore, if the output load tries to draw more than this

level, V

(Figure 9) drops below the set voltage and LM431

can draw only a given minimum cur rent. As a r esult, the opto

coupler secondary current drops to almost zero. Almost the

entire current flow at the node is from the Fairchild Power

Switch (FPS) 1mA current source. Hence, the internal 3kΩ

resistor (2.5R + R = 3KΩ) moves V

to 3V. From this point

on, however, the 5µA current source starts to charge C

and, because the opto coupler secondary current is almost

zero, V

continues to increase. When V

reaches 7.5V, the

Fairchild Powe r Switch (FPS) shuts down.

Figure 9. Fairchild Power Switch(FPS) overload protection circuit.

The shutdown delay interval is therefore determined by C

fb.

When C

is 10nF, the shutdown delay t2 (see Figure 10b) is

about 9mS. With C

at 0.1µF, t2 is about 90ms. Such delay

intervals do not allow the typical transients observed to shut

down the Fairchild Power Switch (FPS). Note that, if a

longer delay is needed, C

cannot be made arbitrarily large

because it is important in determining the dynamic response

of the SMPS.

When a large value of C

is necessary, a series connected

capacitor and Zener diode can be connected across C

shown in Figure 10a. The combination works in this way:

When V

is below 3 V, the low valued C

allows the SMPS

to have a good dynamic response. When V

is above 3.9V,

the high valued C

extends the delay time to the desired

shutdown point. Of course, where tran sients are insig nificant

and good dynamic response is not required, then eliminate

and the Zener, thereby eliminating their added costs.

Rsense

OSC.

Ioffset

1mA2uA Vck

Vfb

Vfb*

Sense

Reset

Thermal

Shutdown

7.5V

Cfb

Shutdown

Vo #4

SPS

KA431

D1 D2 2.5R

Fairchild Power Switch(FPS)

LM431

APPLICATION NOTE AN4105

Figure 10. Long delay shutdown.

2.2 Output Short Circui t Protection

When the SMPS’ s output terminal is short circuited the input

current is at maximum. The output power however, is not a

maximum. Th is is b ecaus e ther e can be no load voltage s ince

the load is a short circuit. Under such conditions the output

short circuit protection operates as follows.

When the output load short circuits a relatively large

transformer winding in the SMPS, the Fairchild Power

Switch(FPS)’s MOSFET current becomes much greater than

peak

because the inductor ’s magnetic core is unable to reset.

This is due to low transformer coil voltage at turn off. This

occurs because the current remaining in the inductor during

the Fairchild Power Switch(FPS)’s minimum turn on time

cannot decrease b y that amount during the remaining turn off

time. Even though it is a large current, it does not unduly

stress th e MOSF ET bu t does g reatly stress the tra nsformer’s

secondary coils and the secondary side rectifiers.

In most flyback or forward converters the controller gets its

power from a small secondary bias winding in the

transformer. Furthermore, this controller voltage is propor-

tional to the output voltage (see circuit of Figure 11a). This

is fairly straightforward because, for a flyback converter, the

coil voltage when the switch turns off is proportional to the

output vol ta ge.

For a forward converter, the transformer average voltage at

turn off is proportional to the output voltage. For a flyback

converter SMPS, the output short circuit protection circuit

can be operated in either latch mode or auto restart mode.

The change in V

as a function of Rsd is shown in Figure

11b. Rsd is shown in Figure 11a. When R

is zero, V

reaches the maximum value of V

(see lower primary

winding, Figure 11a), i.e., n'V

/n, which is proportional to

the maximum transformer cur rent. For this case, if the output

short circuits, V

increases and, after a specified delay, the

protection circuit operates, entering the latch mode.

However, when R

is made sufficiently large, V

can

become smaller than n'V

. Therefore, if the output short

circuits, V

drops, but, if C

(see Figure 11a) is sufficiently

large, V

stays at a level higher than the UVLO's lower

threshold voltag e (10V ) until V

reaches 7.5V (Figure 11c-

2) and latch mode protection starts. In contrast, if C

small enough V

approaches the UVLO's low threshold

before V

reaches 7.5V (Figure 11c-3), and the UVLO

operates instead of the protection circuit, s toppin g the device

switching. In such a case, if V

exceeds the ULVO's upper

threshold voltage (15V), auto restart operates again. R

, and C

have af fects even at s tart up and p ower down, so

their values must be decided upon carefully. Our

experiments have indicated that 10-20W is most appropriate

for R

Time Constant

= 3.5R*Cfb

2uA = Cfb*0.9V/t2

2uA = Cd*3.6V/t3

Shutdown

< SPS long Delayed Shutdown >

(b)

7.5V

t2t1

3.9V

1mA2uA

Vfb

Vfb*

7.5V

4D1 D2

Vz=3.9V

SPS

KA431

(a)

LM431

Fairchild Power Switch(FPS)

AN4105 APPLICATION NOTE

Figure 11. Operation of the SMPS flyback converter’s output short circuit protection (latch mode ).

Cvcc

Vtx n

Vin/n

Vsn/n

(b) Flayback converter controller voltage and Rsd dependent Vcc

No Rsd

Low Rsd

Large Rsd

10V

7.5V

Vcc

Output short Shutdown

UVLO

(1)

(2)

(3)

Shutdown

UVLO

Shutdown

Vfb

(

)

Vcc and Vfb waveforms de

endin

on the relative size of Cvcc at out

ut short

SPS

VccVfb

Vtx

Control

Vin Vsn

CccCfb

Rsd

n:1

(a) Flyback converter

KA431

LM431

Fairchild Power Switch(FPS )

The voltage Vtx waveform of N

and V

(the rect ifi ed V

) depending on Rsd

Vin

APPLICATION NOTE AN4105

2.3 Fast Protecti on Without Delay

It was mentioned above that the Fairchild Power

Switch(FPS) sh utdown capability is associated with a delay,

to allow normal transients to occur without shutting down

the system. In effect, this restricts the protection range. If

fast protection is required, then additional circuitry is called

for. Figure 12 shows how it’s done. A transistor is used to

force the feedback photodiode current to increase causing

the primary side V

to be forced below 0.3V. Therefore the

Fairchild Power Switch (FPS) stops switching. Depending

on the magnitude of the photodiode current, the protection

can be made to o perate suf ficiently fast. In such a case, wh en

the transistor is turned off, the protection shifts to auto restart

mode for normal operation. It is also possible to use this

circuit as an output enable circuit. Fast latch mode protection

can be implemented by adding a photocoupler. Thus, when

the output terminal latch mode transistor turns on, a large

current flows through the photodiode PC2. A large current

therefore flows through the primary phototransistor, which

increases V

rapidly. This executes fast latch mode

protect ion wit h no ti me del ay.

Figure 12. A fast protection circuit without a shutdown delay.

2.4 Overvoltage Protection

The Fairchild Power Switch (FPS) has a self protection

feature that operates even when faults exist in the feedback

path. These could include an open or short circuit. On the

primary side, if the feedback terminal is short circuited, then

the voltage on it is zero and hence the Fairchild Power

Switch (FPS) is unable to st art switch in g.

If the feedback path open circuits, the protection circuit

operates as though a secondary overload is present. Further,

if the feedback terminal looks open due say, to some fault in

the primary feedback circuit, the primary side could switch

at the set maximum current level until the protection circuit

operates. This causes the secondary voltage to become much

greater than the rated voltage. Note that in such a case if

there were no pr otecti on circuit, t he fuse coul d blow or, more

serious, a fire could start.

It is possible that, without a regulator, devices directly

connected to the secondary output could be destroyed.

Instead, however, the Fairchild Power Switch (FPS) over

voltage protection circuit operates. Since V

is propor-

tional to the output, in an over voltage situation it will also

increase. In the Fairchild Power Switch (FPS), the protection

circuit operates w hen V

exceeds 25V. Therefore in normal

operation V

must be set below 25V.

SPS

Vcc

Vfb

Vtx

Control

Vin Vsn

Ccc

Cfb

Rsd

n:1

n*:1

KA431

PC1

PC2

PC1

Burst Mode

Shut Down

PC2

Latch Mode

Shut Down

LM431

Fairchild Power Switch(FPS)

Vin

AN4105 APPLICATION NOTE

3. Noise Considerations at switch Turn On

3.1 SMPS Current Sensing

Whether an SMPS is current mode or voltage mode

controlled, or uses some form of non linear control, it

requires the protection afforded by current sensing

capabilities. Even though m ost current sensin g is do ne using

a sensing resistor or a current transformer, there are

instances where a MOSFET is used by the SMPS to further

reduce current sensing losses. The Fairchild Power Switch

(FPS) sw itching elem ent is a SenseFE T. This minimises any

power losses in the sense resistor, which is integrated onto

the controller chip.

3.2 Current Sensing Waveform Noise After

Turn On

A leading edge spike is present on the current sense line

when the SMPS switching device turns on. It arises from

three causes, as shown in Figure 13: (1) reverse recovery

current; (2) charge/discharge current of the MOSFET shunt

capacitance; and (3) MOSFET gate operating current.

(1) Reverse recovery current is generated when the SMPS

operates in continuous conduction mode (CCM; see Section

4.1). If the MOSFET is turned on while t he rectifier d iode is

conducting, the diode, during its reverse recovery time will

act like a short circuit. Therefore a large current spike will

flow in the MOSFET. There are three ways to reduce the

magnitude of this (reverse recovery) current: use a fast

recovery diode; reduce the MOSFET’s gate operating

current at turn on; or, increase the transformer leakage

inductance.

(2) The total capacitance on the MOSFET’s drain side

includes the parasitic capacitor C

between the drain and the

source terminals, the junction capacitance of the snubber

diode, and the capacitance of the transformer windings. At

turn on, the total equivalent capacitor discharges through the

MOSFET.

(3) As shown in the diagram, the MOSFET gate operating

current also flows through the current sensing resistor.

Figure 13. Current sensing waveform noise after turn on.

Vin

Control

Vo Vin

Control

Vo Vin

Control

Reverse Recovery Current Charge/Discharge Current of

the equvalent capacitor MOSFET Gate Operating

Current

AN4105 APPLICATION NOTE

3.3 Dealing With Leading Edge Noise

Among the measures taken to reduce leading edge noise, the

most commonly used technique is the RC filter. As shown in

Figure 14a the RC filter is effective against the noise, but it

has the disadvantage that it distorts the current sensing signal

so that accurate current sensing becomes difficult.

Furthermore, a large RC value may be difficult to implement

on an IC and may even require a bigger chip. The technique

of leading edge blanking, as presented in Figure 14b and

14c, overcomes the distortion disadvantage of the RC

technique and works as follows. Since the problem noise

arises just after turn on, if a circuit is inserted that ignores the

current sensing line for a fixed time just after turn on,

operation can continue normally regardless of the noise.

Whatever the details of the location and type of circuit used,

the basic idea is to maintain a minimum turn on time i.e.,

touse the shortest turn on time that cannot be terminated

once turn on starts. Duty ratio control with a minimum turn

on time is implemented through a non linear control method

having a very wide co ntrol range relativ e to a linear control.

The non linear control operates such that if load conditions

require a turn on time of 400ns when the minimum turn on

time is set at 500ns, then one sw itching cycle will turn on at

800ns. The next cycle will be missed, ensuring that the

average turn on time is 400ns. In this case every other cycle

is missed. This is pulse skipping. In this case the switching

frequency will be half that of a linearly controlled system,

thereby improving SMPS efficiency at light loads. The input

power is therefore minimised. The Fairchild KA34063 dc/dc

converter is an example of a non linear control IC.

3.3.1 Burst Mode Operation

The aforementioned method can be viewed as an example of

burst mode o perati on . Bu rs t m ode o perat i on , by reducing the

switching frequency, is one of the most useful ways to

improve SMPS efficiency at light loads and to reduce the

standby input power of household appliances, etc. Note that

burst mode operation is not a burst oscillation (as in ringing

choke conversion circuits), which can brin g about reliability

problems. There are mainly two types of true burst mode

operation: one type lowers the switching frequency equally.

The other switches at normal frequency for a fixed time and

stops the control IC operation for a large number of cycles.

Even though in the first method the control IC continues to

consume power, the output voltage ripple is minimized.

The second method can be a useful way to reduce the

minimum input power at standby (since obviously the

standby power is greatly reduced when the IC is stopped).

Indeed, it is often used in cell phones to reduce the dc/dc

converter’s power consumption in standby mode. However,

it has the disadvantage of a larger output voltage ripple.

Currently, Europe restricts a household appliance’s standby

input power to less than 5W, and in time it will be required

to be less than 3W. For such needs, burst mode operation

will be a powerful method to satisfy the requirement for

reduced standby input power.

AN4105 APPLICATION NOTE

Figure 14. Leading edge blanking.

PWM

MOSFET

Current

Sensing

< Noise elimination using RC filter >

< Noise elimination and waneforms in LEB >

Feedback

Circuit

Ifb

Ifb Vfb

Vis

Cfb

LEB

OSC Vi

Vck

Vis Vfb

< Internal block diagram for noise elimination using LEB>

(a)

(b)

(c)

Noise elimination and waveforms in LE B

APPLICATION NOTE AN4105

4. Flyback Converter Operati on

4.1 Operation In Continuous Conduction Mode

(CCM)

Figure 15 shows a typical flyback convert er. When the current

through the converter’s inductor is always greater than zero

within a switching cycle, the converter is said to operating in

the continuous conduction mode (CCM). Figure 16 shows the

waveforms of CCM operation, whic h operate s as fo llows.

4.1.1 For t

~ t

= T

At t

the MOSFET turns on. Immediately before t

, the

inductor current was flowing through diode D, but when the

MOSFET turns on, D turns off thereby isolating the output

terminal from the input terminal. At MOSFET turn on, its

goes to zero, hence V

becomes (V

+ V

/n). During the

interval after MOSFET turn on (i.e., from t

on), V

applied to L

, so I

increases linearly with a slope as

shown by the followin g equation:

When the energy flow is examined, it is seen that the input

power source supplies ener g y t o L

while the MOSFET is on.

However, since the energy in L

continues to increase while

the output terminal is isolated from the input terminal, it is C

that has to su pply t he output current during t hi s inte rval.

4.1.2 For t

~ t

= T

OFF

At t

the MOSFET turns off. At the instant of turn off, the

inductor current that had b een fl owi ng t hro ugh th e MO SF ET

starts to flow through diode D. When D turns on, V

becomes (V

+nV

). During this interval the voltage nV

applied to L

so that I

decreases in a straight line with the

following slope:

When the energy flow during this interval is examined, it is

seen that the inductor energy is delivered to the output. The

energy in L

is reduced by the amount of energy it delivers

to the output. When the MOSFET turns on again, at t

, one

switching cycle will end.

4.1.3 Relationship Between Input And Output

As shown in Figure 16, the colored areas A and B of the

waveform V

(the voltage applied to the inductor) must be

equal because the average voltage of the inductor or

transformer in steady state is always zero. Therefore:

The input and output currents become:

Hence the input and output powers are equal. An ideal

waveform is shown here because the effect of leakage

inductance has been ignored. In reality leakage inductance

will cause ringing.

Figure 15. A typical flyback converter.

Figure 16. Flyb ack conver te r opera ting waveforms in

continuous current mode (CCM).

Slope V

-------=

Slope nVO

------------=

nVO

------------TON

TOFF

--------------- D

D1–

-------------==

ViTON nVOTOFF

n1 D–()I

Lm, AVG

n:1

t0t1t2t3

VGS

VDS

ILm

0ON OFF

VLm

Slpoe=nVO/L m

Slope=Vi/Lm

Vi+nVO

TON TOFF

0Vi

nV0

V0+Vi/n

IDS

AN4105 APPLICATION NOTE

4.2 Discontinuous Conduction Mode (DCM)

The appearance of an interval in which the inductor current

becomes zero during a switching cycle marks flyback

converter operation as discontinuous conduction mode

(DCM). As shown in Figure 17, the voltage waveform

applied to the inductor, V

, becomes more complex in

DCM. Hence, to avoid difficulties in computation T

OFF

not used. Instead, three input and output relationships of a

converter are derived by using T

OFF

* , the time when the

output rectifier diode is actually conducting.

Figure 17. Flyback converter operating waveforms in

discontinuous current mode (DC M).

The boundary condition between DCM and CCM is:

The following input output relationship in DCM is derived

by using the fact that the colored areas A and B of V

Figure 17 must always be equal because, in steady state, the

average inductor (or transformer) voltage is always zero.

Deriving the above equation again, using I

and the fact that

the input and output powers are equal, V

is obtained as:

The following equation represents the input power:

where f

is the switching frequency.

4.3 Flyback Converter Design

4.3.1 Turns Ratio Considerations

The turns ratio of an SMPS’s flyback converter transformer

is an important variable. It affects the voltage and current

levels associated with the primary side switching device and

the secondary side rectifier, as well as the number of turns on

the transformer and the current through it. A frequently

discussed design concept suggests operating at maximum

duty ratio when the input voltage is a minimum. For

simplified calculations, here it is assumed that operating

conditions change as listed immediately below.

- V

input: 85 ~ 265V

- V

(rectified voltage): 100 ~ 400V

- Output voltage: 50V

- Inductor current: Continuous conduction mode (CCM)

operation assumed.

The input power taken by the dc source is the product of the

dc voltage and average input current. Using a wide duty

cycle to deliver equal average current reduces efficiency.

A narrow duty cycle increases the effective current on the

primary side, increasing the operating temperature of the

primary winding and the MOSFET. Also, it is best to decide

on a turns rat io, n, based on the devi ce used. If the vo ltage on

the primary side MOSFET is relatively low (e.g., 600V),

make n small; if it is on the high side (e.g., 800V), make n

large. As the value of n increases, the primary side switching

device current and the secondary side rectifier diode voltage

decreases Hence, with high output voltage and multiple

secondary side outputs, it is advantageous to increase n.

0ON OFF

OFF

+nV

Slpoe=V

Slope=nV

/n V

Slope

---------- T

-------- TON

T*OFF

-------------------D*

1D*–

----------------==

ViTON nVOT*OFF

()

----- L

OFF

+()V

-----------------------------------------------------------------=

---L

Lm,(peak)

fsw=

APPLICATION NOTE AN4105

4.3.2 Deciding On The Operating Current Mode

As discussed in Sections 4.1 and 4.2, there are two different

operating current mod es possible in a flyback con verter: the

continuous conduction mode (CCM); and the discontinuous

conduction mode (DCM). Here the advantages and

disadvantages of each are reviewed, to help the designer

make a proper choice between them.

4.3.2.1 Charact eristics Of The Discontinuous

Conduction Mode

In a flyback converter design, if discontinuous conduction

occurs just at minimum input voltage and maximum output

power, then discontinuous conduction must be considered to

be the case for all input conditions. The flyback converter’s

input power in discontinuous conduction mode can be

expressed as:

Regardless of any changes in input voltage, the power

equation indicates that the input current is limited by the

peak value of the current flowing through the MOSFET in

the transformer primary. A Fairchild Power Switch (FPS)

has an integrated overcurrent protection feature (see Secti on

2.1, above). This feature does not require external

components and operates across the range of input current.

However, the fixed operating current of DCM, tends

somewhat to offset the effect of the larger effective primary

side current. T he gain is at th e low frequency end where co re

loss is not a problem since only a minimum number of turns

need be wound. Also, turn on loss is not a serious problem

due to the low input current. Other losses such as eddy

current, skin eff ect, proximity ef fect, etc., are not significant.

A more clearly defined advantage of DCM operation is that

it permits the use of a slow and hence, low cost secondary

rectifier diode. In contrast to the continuous conduction

mode, in the discontinuous conduction mode the effective

current is higher, requiring the use of heavier wire and hence

thicker coils. Therefore DCM does not bring an advantage

insofar as transformer construction is concerned. Moreover,

DCM causes the MOSFET op erating temper ature to increas e

because of the large effective primary side current, as was

described above (Section 4.3.1).

4.3.2.2 Characteristics Of The

Continuous Conduction Mode

Since the coils’ effective current is decreased CCM brings

the advantage of lighter wire. The smaller effective current

also reduces MOSFET heating. This is a definite advantage

for average input current. On the other hand, CCM operation

brings with it a need to consider the r ectifier diode’s rever se

recovery current. Depending on the diode’s reverse recovery

time (t

), the reverse recovery current may stress the diode

and increase the loss at its end terminals. It is therefore

necessary to use a diode with the minimum t

possible

within the allowable cost range.

---L

fsw=

AN4105 APPLICATION NOTE

Figure 18. The curr ent and voltage ratings required on the primary side switc hing dev ice and the sec onda ry side

rectifier diode depend on the turns ratio (n) selected.

4.3.2.3 Designer’s Choice

As is clear from the above discussion, DCM operation can

be advantageous, in terms of cost and efficiency, if the input

is small and it is required to precisely control the input power

through the primary side switch (MOSFET) current.

On the other hand, for large inputs and where switching turn

on loss could be a major problem, a CCM design would be

more advantageous. In conclusion, therefore, the system

designer must decide between the two modes according to

which mode best fits the characteristics of the system being

designed.

n V

=100V V

=400V Merits & demerits

=167V

=125V

=467V

=317V

V oltage applied to switch device is

low

-Effective current in switching device

and primary winding is low

-V oltage applied to rectifier diode is

high

-Output voltage ripple is small

-Control must be done through short

turn-on tim e

=200V

=100V V

=500V

=250V

-Intermediate Design Method

=250V

=83V V

=550V

=183V

V oltage applied to switch device is

high

-Effective current in switching device

and primary winding is high

-V oltage applied to rectifier diode is

low

-Output voltage ripple is largel

-Control must be done through long

turn-on tim e

=100V

=67V

/n=75V

=50V

=100V

/n=50V

=50V

=100V

=150V

/n=33V

=50V

=400V

=67V

/n=267V

=50V

=400V

=100V

/n=200V

=50V

=400V

=150V

/n=133V

=50V

n:1

APPLICATION NOTE AN4105

5. The Transformer

5.1 Why a Transformer Is Needed

There are three reasons for needing a transformer in a power

conversion circuit. The first reason is safety. A transformer

affords electrical isolation between the primary and

secondary sides, as shown in Figure 19a. In addition, a true

ground on the output side helps prevent electric shock. The

second reason is for voltage conversion. For example, if a

dc/dc converter (such as the buck converter shown in Figure

19b) switching at 50kHz is used to obtain 5V from 100V.

The duty cycle would only be 5%. Using a 50kHz switching

frequency, the control circuit may have only about 1µs to

act, which is not an easy task. Even if this were possible, the

internal voltage and current for each element would be very

large reducing efficiency. The problem is aggravated at high

output current. In the above example, using a transformer to

lower the voltage to 10V would then allowing an on time of

about 10µs. This is an advantageous strategy for lowering

cost and raising efficiency. The third reason to use a

transformer has to do with high voltages and voltage fluctu-

ations. For example, even though all control for a 1000V

supply is done at the 5V power source on the GND side, a

transformer is necessary if power is needed for current

sensing at the 1000V output terminal or for other control. If

the isolation voltage between the transformer windings is

sufficient, a 1000V potential difference can be safely

maintained between the primary and secondary windings

and power can be delivered. Further, a transformer is also

required when the power GND has a sudden potential

fluctuation as in a half bridge converter, gate drive power

source.

Figure 19. Why a transformer is needed.

5.2 The Ideal Transformer

The transformer is a device that uses inductive coupling

between its windings to deliver power or signals from one

winding to the another. This is usually from the primary

winding to the secondary winding. The voltages across the

windings can be rais ed or lowered with res pect to each other,

and, if necessary, the primary and secondary sides can be

isolated from each other. Figure 20 shows an ideal

transformer, a simplistic model useful in describing the

transformer concept. An ideal transformer which is actually

a fictional concept must satisfy the following three

conditions:

1.The coupling coefficient between the windings

is unity (i.e., the leakage flux is zero);

2.The coil loss is zero (the device has no losses).

3.The inductance of each coil is infinite.

AC220V

&Rectifier DC

Output

Electric short when touched Safe to touch

GND

(a) For safty

(b) For voltage change

100V ----> Duty 5% ----> 5V

50kHz --> Ton=1uS

100V --> 10V --> Duty 50% --> 5V

50kHz -> Ton=10uS

10:1

1000V

Vin=100V

Vo=5V

Shock

Safety

AN4105 APPLICATION NOTE

Figure 20. Ideal transformer.

The input to output voltage ratio of an ideal transformer is

directly proportional to the turns ratio. This is the ratio of the

number of turns on the primary winding to the number of

turns on the secondary. The polarity is represented schemati-

cally by the placement of a dot on each winding. Since n =

, and an ideal transformer has no loss, the current ratio

is inversely proportional to the turns ratio. The current direc-

tion is such that it enters on one side and leaves at another.

Thus the sum of all the nI that flow into the dot is zero. The

dot, indicating the winding polarity, is placed to make the

flux direction in the transformer core uniform when current

flows into the dot. Furthermore, in the case of an ideal trans-

former, if the path on the secondar y side win ding s is open ed,

there is no secon dary cur rent flow, and the current on the pri-

mary side also goes to zero.

5.3 The Real Transformer

Significant differences exist between an ideal transformer

and a real one. In a real transformer:

1. The coupling coefficient between each coil is finite, and

when a gap is placed in the core as is done in many power

transformers, the coupling coefficient becomes still smaller

(i.e., there is leakage flux);

2. There are losses, such as iron (hysteresis) loss, eddy current

loss, coil resistance loss, etc.; and,

3. The inductance of each coil is finite. When a gap is

placed in the core the inductance becomes still smaller.

In a real transformer, should the secondary side be opened

current would continue to flow in the primary (as in 3,

above). So, while energy cannot be stored in the ideal

transformer, it is stored in a real transformer. The so-called

magnetizing inductance accounts for this energy storage

phenomenon. The circuit of Figure 21 is a simplistic view of

an actual transformer and shows the magnetizing indu ctance.

Figure 22 presents a more complete equivalent circuit of a

real transfor mer, showing inductances and loss resistances

Figure 21. A model of an actual transformer showing the

magnetizing inductance L

, which accounts for energy

storage.

Figure 22. A more complete equivalent circuit of an

actual transformer, showing inductances and loss

resistances.

Ideal Transformer

RsRp Llp Lls

Ideal Transformer

- Rp:Primary side winding resistance

- Rs:Secondary side winding resistance

- Llp:Primary side leakage inductance

- Lls:Secondary side leakage inductance

- Lm:Magnetizing inductance

- Rm:Transformer core loss resistance

APPLICATION NOTE AN4105

6. Transformer Design

6.1 Core Selection

The maximum power that a transformer core can deliver and

the maximum energy a transformer inductor can store

depends on the shape and size of the core. In general, as the

effective cro ss sectional area (Ae) increases, more power can

be delivered. Also, as the window area (Aw) on which the

coils are wound increases, more and thicker windings can be

used, allowing a further increase in the power that can be

delivered. The product of Aw and Ae is called the area

product, AP, and the maximum power a transformer can

deliver is proportional to an exponential power of AP.

Indeed, recent transformer theory shows designs depending

almost entirely on AP. In the broader view, a flyback

converter transformer can be viewed as a coupled inductor,

so it's common to design a flyback transformer using

inductor design methods. The two equations below, (a) and

(b), represent two ways to calculate AP. Equation (a) below,

is a method based on whether or not the core is satu rated, is

appropriate at low operating frequencies. Equation (b),

limited by core loss, is appropriate at high frequencies. For

any given design, it is necessary to calculate AP using both

equations, and the equation that gives the higher value is the

one that must be considered correct. Equation (a) assumes

that all losses are wire losses an d ign ores the co re (iro n) loss.

L and B

MAX

are in Henries and Tesla units, respectively, and

K is listed in Table 1, below. From the above equation the

current density (J) per unit area of wire is obtain ed from the

current by the relationship below, which assumes that the

temperature of the inductor’s “hot spot” is 30°C above

ambient.

At any operating frequency high enough so that the core

losses become large, the following equation should be used.

Specifically, it assumes that the total transformer losses are

split equally (50/50) between the wire an d the core

In equation (b), K

is t he hysteresis coefficient (typically 4 x

-5

for ferrite cores) and K

is the eddy current coefficient

(typically 4 x 10

-10

for ferrite cores).

The current density relation ship here, repres ented by the

equation for J

, below, assumes a hot spot temperature of

15°C above ambient, with the i ron los s adding on an

additional 15°C ( again, a tota l of 30° C above ambi ent).

The paramete r K in equation (a) is the product of the window

utilization factor K

with the primary area factor K

(See Table 1.) K

is the ratio of the cross sectional area of

the winding’s copper to the entire window area, and it is

significant in setting the isolation between the primary and

secondary sides. Because it is related to the transformer

shape and winding method, the designer should know the

value of K

for the transformer usually used.

The value of K

can vary greatly, depending particularly on

how closely the isolation safety standards (re isolation) are

followed; the K

of Table 1 assumes a general bobbin is

used. K

is the ratio of the area of the primary winding to

that of the total winding. In Table 1, it is unity for the

inductors because a buck boost inductor has no secondary

windings. For the flyback transformer coupled inductor, K

is usually 0.5, as Table 1 shows; such an inductor has the

highest efficiency when the primary and secondary winding

areas are equal. When there are more secondary windings,

however, the K

for a flyback transformer coupled inductor

can be lower than 0.5. Note that the ease and speed of

obtaining an accurate AP from equatio ns (a) and (b) dep ends

on the designer's experience. A reasonably good knowledge

of the probable valu es of the thr ee parameters K

, K

, and J

for the flyback transformer being designed will reduce the

number of trial and error attempts necessary.

AP LI

RMS

420KB

MAX

-------------------------------







1.31

[] a) =

L = Inductance of Transformer

Ip = Operating peak current

Bmax = MAximum operating flux density

Irms = RMS current

420 AP

0.24–

Acm

⁄[]=

AP L∆ImIRMS104

130K

------------------------------------------







1.58

KHfSW KEfsw

()

+()

0.66 cm2

[]b)=

L = Inductance of Transformer

Ip = Operating peak current

Irms = RMS current

297AP

0.24–

Acm

⁄[]=

AN4105 APPLICATION NOTE

6.2 Determining The Number of Turns

Although the equation for the minimum number of flyback

transformer turns can be determined using applied voltage

and maximum turn on time, the equations used here are

derived from the relationship between L and I

For an AP determined from equation (a), above, calculate

MIN

using the following eq uations:

For an AP determined from equation (b), above, calculate

MIN

using the following eq uations:

6.3 The Windings

The cross sectional area of the winding must be obtained

from the calculated effective current and the current density

(from the appropriate equation above), factoring in the

number of turns (as determined from a calculation of

NMIN). If eddy current loss is not a serious problem simply

divide the effective current by the current density, thereby

determining the coil cross sectional area.

Be aware, however, that as the coil becomes thicker, the

problem of eddy current loss will arise. Using twisted thin

coil strands (Litz wire), instead of a single heavy wire, can

reduce the eddy current loss, but K

will become smaller.

6.4 Determining The Gap

It is not easy to precisely calculate the required gap

However, the gap can be calculated from the following

equation. It is based on the fringing effect of the surrounding

flux. Note that the calculated value of L is usually larger than

required.

Therefore, the gap must be changed to obtain the required

value of L

References

1. Transformer and Inductor Design Handbook. 2nd ed.

Col. Wm. T. McLyman. Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1988.

2. Switch Mode Power Supply Handbook. Keith H.

Billings. McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1989.

KA1H0280RB, KA1M 02 80 RB, KA1H0380RB, KA1M0380RB,

KA1L0380RB, KA1L03 80B, KA1H0680B, KA1M0680B,

KA1H0680RF B , KA1M 068 0RB, KA1M0880B, KA1L0880B,

KA1M0880BF, KA1M0880D, KA2S0680B, KA2S0880B,

KA3S0680RB, KA3S0680RFB, KA3S0880RB, KA3S0880RFB,

KA1H0165RN, KA1H0165R, KA1H0265R, KA1M02 65 R ,

KA1H0365R, KA1M 0365R, KA1L0365R, KA1H0565R,

KA1M0565R, KA1M0765RC, KA1M 07 65 R , KA1M0965R,

KA2S0765, KA2S0965, KA2S09655, KA2S1265, KA3S0765R,

KA3S0765RF, KA3S0965R, KA3S09 65RF, KA3S1265R,

KA3S1265RF, KA5H0280R, KA5M0280R, KA5H0380R,

KA5M0380R, KA5L0380R, KA5P0680C, KA5H0165R,

KA5M0165R, KA5L0165R, KA5H0 165RV, KA5M0165RV,

KA5L0165RV, KA5M0165RI, KA5L0 165RI, KA5H0165RN,

KA5M0165RN, KA5L0165RN, KA5H0165RVN,

KA5M0165RVN, KA5L0165RVN, KA5H02659RN,

KA5M02659RN, KA5H026 5RC, KA5M0265R, KA5L0265R,

KA5M0365RN, KA5L0365RN, KA5H0365R, KA5M0365R,

KA5L0365R, KA5M0765RQC, KA5M0965Q, KA5S0765C,

KA5S09654QT, KA5S0965, KA5S12656, KA5 S1 265,

KA5Q0740RT, KA5Q0945RT, KA5Q0765RT, KA5Q126 56RT,

KA5Q126 5R F, KA5Q1565R F, FSDH0165, FSDH565,

FS6M07652RTC, FS6M12653RTC, FS6S0765RCB,

FS6S0965RT, FS6S0965RC, FS6S1265RB, FS6S1565RB,

FS7M 08 80 , FS8 S0 765RC

Table 1. K

, K

, and K

K = K

CCM Buck, Boost Inductor 0.7 1.0 0.7

DCM Buck, Boost Inductor 0.7 1.0 0.7

CCM Flyback Transformer 0.4 0.5 0.2

DCM Flyback Transformer 0.4 0.5 0.2

MIN

MAX

-----------------------10

L = Inductance of Transformer

Ip = Operating peak current

Bmax = Maximum operating flux density

Ae = Effective cross-sectional area of core

MIN

L∆I

∆B

--------------------10

L = Inductance of Transformer

Ip = Operating peak current

Bmax = Maximum operating flux density

Ae = Effective c ross-sectional area of core

---------------------------- 10

–

[]

Uo = Permeability of free space

Ur = Relative permeability

APPLICATION NOTE AN4105

AN4105 APPLICATION NOTE

3/19/ 04 0.0 m 002

 2002 Fairchi ld Semi co nd ucto r Corpo ra ti on

DISCLAIMER

FAIRCHILD SEMICONDUCTOR RESERVES THE RIGHT TO MAKE CHANGES WITHOUT FURTHER NOTICE TO ANY

PRODUCTS HEREIN TO IMPROVE RELIABILITY, FUNCTION, OR DESIGN. FAIRCHILD DOES NOT ASSUME ANY

LIABILITY ARISING OUT OF THE APPLICATION OR USE OF ANY PRODUCT OR CIRCUIT DESCRIBED HEREIN; NEITHER

DOES IT CONVEY ANY LICENSE UNDER ITS PATENT RIGHTS, NOR THE RIGHTS OF OTHERS.

LIFE SUPPORT POLICY

FAIRCHILD’S PRODUCTS ARE NOT AUTHORIZED FOR USE AS CRITICAL COMPONENTS IN LIFE SUPPORT DEVICES

OR SYSTEMS WITHOUT THE EXPRESS WRITTEN APPROVAL OF THE PRESIDENT OF FAIRCHILD SEMICODUCTOR

CORPORATION. As used herein:

1. Life support devices or systems are devices or systems

which (a) are intended for surgical implant into the body, or

(b) support or sustain life, or (c) whose failure to per-form

when properly used in accordance with instructions for use

provided in the labeling can be reasonably expected to

result in significant injury to the user.

2. A critical component is any component of a life support

device or system whose failure to perform can be

reasonably expected to cause the failure of the life support

device or system, or to affect its safety or effectiveness.